The Project Gutenberg eBook of Plain English

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Title: Plain English

Author: Marian Wharton

Release date: August 21, 2012 [eBook #40550]

Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

Credits: E-text prepared by Mark C. Orton, Anita Hammond, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PLAIN ENGLISH ***

The Project Gutenberg eBook, Plain English, by Marian Wharton

E-text prepared by Mark C. Orton, Anita Hammond,

and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team

(http://www.pgdp.net)

PLAIN ENGLISH

By

MARIAN WHARTON

For the Education of the Workers

by the Workers

PUBLISHED BY

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE

FORT SCOTT, KANSAS

1917

¶ He who aspires to master the art of expression must first of all consecrate himself completely to some great cause and the greatest cause of all is the cause of humanity. He must learn to feel deeply and think clearly, to express himself eloquently. He must be absolutely true to the best there is in him, if he has to stand alone.

¶ Such natural powers as he may have should be cultivated by the study of history, science and literature. He must not only keep close to the people but remember that he is one of them, and not above the meanest. He must feel the wrongs of others so keenly that he forgets his own, and resolve to combat these wrongs with all the power at his command.

¶ The most thrilling, inspiring oratory, the most powerful and impressive eloquence is the voice of the disinherited, the oppressed, the suffering and submerged; it is the voice of poverty and misery, of rags and crusts, of wretchedness and despair; the voice of humanity crying to the infinite; the voice that resounds throughout the earth and reaches Heaven; the voice that awakens the conscience of a race and proclaims the truths that fill the world with life and liberty and love.

—EUGENE V. DEBS.

FOREWORD

Every generation has added a little to the store of truth of which the human race has possessed itself throughout the long sweep of the centuries. Every truth expressed and preserved by those who lived in the past, is a contribution which enriches the lives of those who live in the present. We, as members of the human race, are not separate atoms independent of the universe, but we are atoms of it. We are the product of all time, and partake of the truth of all preceding generations, in which the power to express ideas and preserve them has existed.

One reason why the race has not profited more largely by the discoveries of previous generations, is the fact that we feel so profoundly the discovery of a truth of any nature, that we are prone to dogmatize it by a rule or set of rules.

This usually results in shutting away from us the real principle of which the rule is but an evidence. A mechanic may learn every detail of every rule for the construction of a steam engine, but if he lacks the understanding of the principles which give rise to the rules, they will avail nothing and his work must fail. If, however, he understands the principles involved, his work will stand the test, though he has no knowledge of rules as such.

In teaching the English language, the rules have been stressed, while the principles have been submerged, so that the teaching of rules has not resulted in the improvement of the student.

The People's College, realizing this, has, through the author of this work, revolutionized the teaching of the fundamental principles that underlie the use of language. The stress is laid upon principles instead of rules, so that the student, whether he remember a rule or not, will never forget the application of these principles to the use of the written and spoken word.

The assertion is ventured that no more practical and effective method can be devised for the rapid and thorough teaching of these principles. Moreover, the importance of this new departure in method cannot be over-estimated, when we consider that only through the use of language can information be disseminated concerning other branches of learning. This science, then, lies at the very base of all real education, and a mastery of it puts the student in possession of the only weapon by means of which he may master all other sciences.

The author has, with peculiar aptitude, grasped the fundamental character of the foregoing facts and has adapted the study of language to the real principles involved. All the dry rules that are the witnesses of principles in the ordinary text are done away, while the principles evidenced by those rules come forth to the light in practical application, with a beauty of expression and a real utility that render the mastery of the subject an entertaining excursion into the realms of learning, rather than a dry imprisonment of the faculties in an effort to memorize misunderstood rules without apparent reason or real use.

It is the principle behind the rule that has power in it. When this is understood, the method pursued by the author in this course will be universally applied to all branches of learning, and will end forever the imprisonment of children for the useless worship of rules.

The author's grasp of this fact and the exemplification of it, contained in this work are even more far-reaching than the foregoing would indicate. It really means the application of a new viewpoint to life itself. It means the questioning of the utility of authority; the questioning of the utility of institutions; the application, we might say, of such a test as this: Does any rule, does any authority, does any principle, conserve the interests of humanity? If not, away with it. This means rationalism, the use of common sense. It means that at last the race is beginning to consciously direct its own destiny.

It is with a profound sense of the necessity of education as a part of the evolutionary process now in the conscious grasp of the race, and with a conviction of the fundamental importance of the new viewpoint so ably presented by the author that we dedicate this work "To the Education of the Workers by the Workers."

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PLAIN ENGLISH

I.

Language Study

9

II.

Nouns and Verbs

18

III.

Parts of Speech

27

IV.

Nouns

38

V.

Verbs

50

VI.

Inflection of Verbs

58

VII.

Time Forms of Verbs

69

VIII.

Time Forms, Cont'd.

78

IX.

Participles and Infinitives

88

X.

Helping Verbs

97

XI.

Verbs—Common Errors

106

XII.

Pronouns

115

XIII.

Pronouns, Cont'd.

127

XIV.

Adjectives

138

XV.

Adjectives, Cont'd.

148

XVI.

Adverbs

160

XVII.

Adverbs, Cont'd.

169

XVIII.

Prepositions

179

XIX.

Prepositions, Cont'd.

189

XX.

Conjunctions

200

XXI.

Conjunctions, Cont'd.

212

XXII.

Adjective Clauses

222

XXIII.

Independent Constructions

232

XXIV.

Sentence Building

243

XXV.

Sentence Analysis

255

XXVI.

Sentence Building

267

XXVII.

Sentence Building

278

XXVIII.

The Use of Capitals

288

XXIX.

Punctuation

299

XXX.

Punctuation, Cont'd.

310

SPELLING

I.

Definition

17

II.

Vowels and Consonants

26

III.

Diacritical Marks

36

IV.

Digraphs

49

V.

Diphthongs

57

VI.

Syllabification

68

VII.

Syllabification, Cont'd.

77

VIII.

Accent

87

IX.

Compound Words

96

X.

Prefixes and Suffixes

105

XI.

Derivatives

114

XII.

Derivatives, Cont'd.

126

XIII.

Silent E

137

XIV.

Words Ending in Y

146

XV.

Words with ei or ie

159

XVI.

Homonyms

168

XVII.

Derivative Nouns

178

XVIII.

Verbs with Prepositions

187

XIX.

Derivative Prepositions

199

XX.

Derivative Adverbs

211

XXI.

Derivative Adjectives

221

XXII.

Words in able and ible

231

XXIII.

Simplified Spelling

241

XXIV.

Verbs with Suffixes

254

XXV.

Cognate Sounds

256

XXVI.

Words beginning with dis

277

XXVII.

The prefixes in, un and mis

287

XXVIII.

Synonyms

297

XXIX.

Antonyms

308

XXX.

Common Errors

320

PLAIN ENGLISH

Lesson I

Open Letter

Dear Comrade:

You are beginning a course of study in the use of Plain English. We do not know what your previous study may have been, but the object of this course is to give the basic principles and practice of the use of the English Language for the benefit of those who have not had the opportunity of a high school education and possibly have not finished in the grade school.

For this reason we have avoided, as much as possible, the statement of rules and formulas to be learned by rote and have made the few rules which it is necessary to know, grow naturally out of the need for them in the development of expression in language.

We have taken for granted several things in the preparation of this course. First, we assume that you have never studied grammar, or if you have, that you will be glad to review it in simplified form. This course does not follow the lines laid down by technical grammarians. It has been worked out on the basis of plain, common sense. Our purpose is not to make of you a grammarian, versed in the knowledge of rules and reasons, but to give you the power to express yourself more readily, fluently and correctly—in other words to speak and write good English.

Second, we assume that you are interested and willing to work and eager to increase your store of knowledge. Your progress in this branch of knowledge will depend, to a large extent, upon your own efforts. We have endeavored to avoid unnecessary and uninteresting rules and make the course as simple, clear and plain as possible; but that does not mean you will not have to work in order to master this study. We trust it will be pleasant and interesting work, bringing you joy as it brings you a growing sense of power.

Probably no two people will use the same plan of work. Your work, to be a pleasure, must express your own individuality. However, we want to make a few suggestions which we know from experience you will find helpful.

1st. Be Systematic. Find some time each day which you can regularly spend in study. Do not be discouraged if it is only fifteen minutes each day. The student who will spend fifteen minutes every day regularly in intensive study can easily complete this course within the prescribed time.

2d. Concentrate. By this we mean that when you study, you should do it to the exclusion of everything else. Keep your mind upon the subject. You may find this difficult at first. Your mind will wander; but you will soon acquire the student habit if you persevere.

3d. Have Faith in Yourself. Do not be easily discouraged. You have the power to master this subject and you will. You will find it of immeasurable value to you to be able to speak and write fluently and correctly. Those whom you admire for their ready use of good English were not born with the "gift of gab." They learned how to speak by studying the rules of grammar, the meaning of words, just as you are studying them. What they have done, you will do.

4th. Go Slowly and Surely. Do not skim through these lessons. Be sure you understand thoroughly as you go along. Read carefully and think for yourself. If there is anything you do not understand at any time, write us and ask about it. These lessons have been carefully prepared and are for your benefit. Make them yours and call upon us freely for help. This is your College and its only ideal is service.

5th. Get a Note-Book. Make your note-book your work-shop. Write in it an outline of each lesson. Fill it with notes, examples, anything which is of interest on the subject. Note down your own frequent mistakes in the use of English. Watch the conversation of your friends; listen to good speakers. Write down the mistakes you notice. Whenever you hear a word which seems particularly good, or when you see one in your reading, write it in your note-book and make it part of your vocabulary. You will find your interest continually growing and also your ability to express the thoughts you yearn to express.

If we can bring to you an increasing joy in life because of a growing power of expression; if we can enlarge your ability to serve the world; if we can, through the study of this wonderful language of ours, open wider the door of opportunity for you,—our comrade,—The People's College will have served its purpose and realized its ideal.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

GOOD ENGLISH—WHAT IS IT?

1. People seem to differ in their idea as to what constitutes "Good English." Have you never seen a man suddenly called upon to make a formal speech or introduced into the company of distinguished men and women? Quite often, he will drop his simple every-day mode of speech and speak in stilted, unnatural language, using all the "big" words he can possibly remember. He no doubt fondly imagines he is making an impression and using "good" English.

The purpose of language is to make one's self understood, and, of course, this can be done in very simple and crude English. The man who breaks every rule of grammar, intersperses his remarks with every variety of slang phrase, may make himself understood, but he is not using good English.

2. Good English is that which is good for its purpose and conforms to the standards of usage.

We have one purpose when we write a business letter and quite another when we are writing or speaking of the great issues of life. There is a place for the simple, direct, plain, unadorned language of every-day business life—the life of the work-a-day world—and there is a place also for the beauty and charm of the language of poetry. If we are talking with the man who works beside us of the work of the day, we will naturally use plain, simple, forceful words. But, if we are speaking to our comrades, striving to arouse them out of their lethargy, to stir them to action as men and women, we will just as naturally use the fine and noble words which touch the depths of human emotion—the heights of human endeavor.

3. There are certain rules for the use of English which have grown up through the years, to which we must conform. These are not arbitrary. They have not been made by any man or any set of men. In fact, they are constantly changing, as the common usage of the people forces the changes. For these rules are only the expression of the common usage, and as usage changes, the rules change.

But these changes come slowly, so we can set down in a book the rules which express the established usage of today. The ability to use good English does not mean the ability to use long, high-sounding words. To be a master of good English means to be able to use the word that meets your need and use it correctly.

Do not strive for effect, strive for effective expression.

USE YOUR DICTIONARY

4. Do you know that the average individual cripples through life with a vocabulary of a few hundred words when he might easily have at his command as many thousands?

We are misers with our words. Here hid away in this book we call the dictionary is a wealth of words, a rich mine of expression, and yet in our every-day conversation we halt and stammer, using meaningless words and phrases largely made up of current slang.

Never let a word pass by that you do not understand thoroughly. Look it up at once in your dictionary and master it then and there. Dollars may be difficult to earn and more difficult to keep, but here is a wealth easily gained and the more you use it the more you possess it.

You will find your dictionary an exceedingly interesting book when you get acquainted with it.

Use it constantly; make it your familiar companion.

OUR LANGUAGE

5. Did you ever stop to think what the world would be if we had no way of communicating, one with another? Think of Helen Keller, shut up in her prison-house of silence. Her only mode of communication with her fellows is through the sense of touch.

Every form of life that has consciousness has some way of expressing its feelings. Every animal, by the movements of its body or the tones of its voice, expresses its emotions of pain, pleasure, rage, hate, joy, hunger and the many passions that sway its life. The child knows without being taught how to express its wants. We understand its cry of hunger, its scream of pain, its laugh of delight. This is the natural language, the language of feeling. It is the universal language that needs no rules and no interpreter. Life on every plane knows and understands it.

WHEN WE BEGIN TO THINK

6. Our feelings and desires are not the only things we wish to communicate. The natural language satisfies a child for a time, but as the child grows he begins to think, then he feels the need of a more effective means of expressing himself. You can express your feelings to a certain extent by the natural language. You can make one know that you are glad by the expression of the face, the attitude of the body or the tone of the voice. But could you make anyone understand why you are glad, by these signs and gestures?

7. To express thoughts and ideas, man had to devise another sort of language. So the language of words grew up out of the need to communicate ideas to other people. As man's ability to think grew, so his language grew. At first, this language was only a spoken language. The ideas of one generation were handed down to the next by the spoken word. Gradually a crude form of writing was invented from which our written language has developed. This has made it possible to put the wisdom of the ages into books for the benefit of the world.

8. Hence, language is the means of expressing thought and feeling. It has grown out of our need for expression.

A word is a symbol of an idea. It is a sound or combination of sounds which we use to represent an idea. The use of words makes it possible for us to readily convey our thoughts to other people.

Through the medium of words we are able to communicate to others our thoughts, not only of the external world about us, but also of the mental world in which we live. We can tell of our loves, our hates, our dreams and our ideals. Animals find the natural language of looks and tones and gestures sufficient because they live almost wholly upon the physical plane. But man lives in a mental world as well as in a physical one, and must have a spoken and written language by which to express his thoughts.

Exercise 1

Select from the following sentences those which it is possible to express by a look or tone or gesture, and those which can not be expressed without words:

1. I am glad.

2. I am glad because men are struggling for freedom.

3. I am hungry.

4. I am hungry for the chance for an education.

5. Come.

6. Come, let us reason together.

7. I am afraid.

8. I am afraid that we must wait long for peace.

9. Go.

10. Go, search the world over for the truth.

11. I am disgusted.

12. I am disgusted with those who will not think for themselves.

13. I am tired.

14. I am tired of these petty squabbles among comrades.

OUR EXPRESSION

9. Our knowledge of language opens up a new world to us. We can communicate with those about us; we can open the storehouse of the knowledge of the past as recorded in books, or as two of our writers have expressed it:

Have you ever rightly considered what the mere ability to read means—that it is the key which admits to the world of thought and fancy and imagination—to the company of saint and sage, of the wisest and wittiest at their wisest and wittiest moments—that it enables us to see with the keenest eyes, hear with the finest ears and listen to the sweetest voices of all time?—Lowell.

Strip man of his books and his papers, and he becomes a mere slave, ignorant of his own resources, ignorant of his rights and opportunities. The difference between the free citizen of today and the savage of yesterday is almost entirely a thing of books. The man who dislikes books can never be entirely happy, and he who loves a good book can never be wholly miserable.—Hillis.

Have you never felt that struggle within and the sense of defeat when you have tried to make some one feel as you feel, understand as you understand, see some great truth as you see it, and could not find the words with which to express your ideas?

10. The mastery of words gives; first, the ability to understand the spoken or written thoughts of others; second, the ability to adequately express our own thoughts; and third, the ability to think clearly and to grow in our intellectual life.

A connected chain of reasoning is impossible without the knowledge of the words that express the development of the ideas and the varying shades of meaning. To gain this mastery, you must know the words of our language and their use. Words are the symbols of ideas and perform certain functions in expressing our thoughts. This, simply stated, is all that the study of English Grammar comprises—the study of English words and their use in the expression of thought and feeling.

THE THOUGHT AND THE WORD

11. We have found that the invention of words grew out of the ability to think and the need for expression. But we first thought! So, in order to express yourself clearly you must first think clearly. Any thought can be simply and clearly expressed. When you read something difficult of understanding, where the thought is buried under an avalanche of words, you can be assured the writer was not thinking clearly. He did not have the perfect mastery of his thought. On the other hand, one may have a valuable thought in mind and not be able to express it because he does not have the words at his command. In the one case, we have words and no idea; in the other, the idea and no words.

This study is intended to enable you to master words, the tools of expression. In whatever work you are engaged, it was first necessary to learn to use the tools with which you work. So, you must master the use of English words, the tools of your expression. You can in that way learn to express your thoughts clearly and exactly. You will not need to resort to slang, or to the tiresome repetition of a few words.

The best of everything is none too good for you. It is your right, your heritage, and the best in the English language will bring you into the company and comradeship of the men and women who have striven and toiled for humanity, who will talk to you of dreams and deeds worth while, who will place in your hands the key to a new world.

A COMPLETE THOUGHT

12. When we want to express a thought we use more than one word. Words are the symbols of ideas, but a thought is the expression of the relation between ideas. For example, I say man, and you get an idea or an image in your mind of a man, but I have not said anything about any man. But if I say, Man works, then I have expressed a thought. I have related the idea of a man and the idea of work and have expressed a complete thought.

So we express our thoughts by groups of words. The very smallest group of words which will express a complete thought must, therefore, contain two words. If I say men, fire, flowers, and stop, you wonder what I mean, for I have not expressed a thought. Or, I might say, work, burns, bloom, and you would still be in the dark as to my meaning; but, when I say, Men work, Fire burns, Flowers bloom, you understand, for I have told you my complete thought. I have put two words together in a way to make sense; I have formed a sentence.

13. If we say, Go or Wait, in the form of a command or entreaty, the single word seems to make complete sense and to form a sentence in itself. But this is only because you, who are to do the going or the waiting, is clearly implied. The words go or wait, by themselves, do not make sense or form a sentence unless they are uttered in the commanding or beseeching tone of voice which makes you understand that You go or You wait is the intended meaning. With the exception of words used in this way as a command or entreaty, it is always necessary to use at least two words to express a complete thought.

But will any two words make a sentence—express a complete thought?

14. Which of these combinations of words are sentences and which are not?

- Busy men.

- Men travel.

- Snow flies.

- Blue sky.

- Red flag.

- Rustling trees.

- Workers strike.

- Bees sting.

- Grass grows.

- Cold winds.

- Green fields.

- Happy children.

Busy men does not express a complete thought. We are wondering busy men do what? But, men travel is a complete thought. It makes sense and forms a sentence, and tells us what men do. In the words, busy men, we have spoken the name of something but have made no assertion concerning it. In the two words, men travel, we have spoken the name men and we have told what they do.

If we were walking down the street together we might say:

- The street is crowded to-day.

- Does the open road attract you?

- See the jostling crowds.

Or if we were discussing the class struggle, we might say:

- Two classes have always existed.

- To which class do you belong?

- Join your class in the struggle.

In every one of these six groups of words we have a complete thought expressed. Each of these groups of words we call a sentence.

15. A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought.

Exercise 2

Write in each blank space the word necessary to express a complete thought.

Men......

......fade.

Leaves......

......bloom.

Water......

......run.

Fire......

......write.

Women......

......grow.

Children......

......speak.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

16. We have found that every sentence must have at least two words, one word to name that about which something is said and another word which does the saying or makes the assertion. In the sentence, Men work, we have these two parts; men which is the part about which something is said, and work which tells what men do.

The part about which something is said is called the subject.

In this sentence, Men work, men, therefore, is the subject, for it names that about which something is said.

17. The part that asserts or says something about the subject is called the predicate.

Therefore in this sentence, Men work, work is the predicate. In the following sentences draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate, thus, Birds fly.

- Ships sail.

- Soldiers fight.

- Flowers fade.

- Horses neigh.

- Flags wave.

- Snow comes.

- War rages.

- Winds blow.

- Fish swim.

18. We may add other words to the subject or the predicate and so enlarge their meaning, as for instance we may say:

- The stately ships sail proudly away.

- The war in Europe rages furiously.

- The soldiers in the army fight like men gone mad.

Yet in every one of these sentences you will find the subject and the predicate,—Ships sail, War rages, Soldiers fight.

Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate, and it is a very important part of the study of sentences to be able to distinguish quickly and readily the subject and the predicate. Find that about which something is said, and that will always be the subject. Find that which is said about the subject, and that will be the predicate.

Every sentence must contain a subject and a predicate.

The subject of a sentence names that about which something is said.

The predicate tells that which is said about the subject.

Exercise 3

In the following sentences add other words to the subject and to the predicate to enlarge their meaning, then draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate:

- Ships sail.

- Tides flow.

- Stars shine.

- Rain falls.

- Children play.

- Nature sleeps.

- Waves break.

- War rages.

- Birds sing.

Exercise 4

In the following sentences the subject and the predicate have other words added to enlarge their meaning. Find the subject and predicate and draw a single line under the subject and a double line under the predicate, as in the sentence,

The workers of the world build palaces for other people.

1. Our success lies in solidarity.

2. New occasions teach new duties.

3. Two classes exist in the world.

4. Labor creates all wealth.

5. The workers fight all battles.

6. Our time calls for earnest deeds.

7. Knowledge unlocks the door of life.

8. Ignorance bars the path to progress.

9. Few people think for themselves.

10. Hope stirs us to action.

SPELLING

LESSON 1

Spelling is the process of naming or writing in proper order the letters of a word. There is nothing that marks us so quickly as lacking in the qualities that go to make up a good education as our inability to spell the words most commonly used.

Spelling in English is rather difficult. If each letter represented but one sound, spelling would be an easy matter. Every word would be spelled just as it sounds. This is the goal of those who advocate phonetic spelling. Phonetic spelling simply means spelling according to sound. But our alphabet does not have a letter for every sound.

There are some forty-two different sounds used in English words and we have only twenty-six letters in the alphabet. Therefore some letters must do duty for several sounds. Then we have words which contain letters which are not sounded at all when the word is pronounced, so, all in all, spelling is a matter of memorizing.

The best way to become an accurate speller is to read much, to observe closely the forms of words and to write frequently. Always spell any word of which you are uncertain aloud several times and write it out several times. In this way you have aided the memory both through the eye and through the ear. If you are not sure of the spelling of a word do not use it until you have looked it up in the dictionary and made sure.

The words in this lesson are taken out of Lesson 1, Plain English Course. There are thirty in all, five for each day of the week. (1) Look up the meaning in the dictionary. (2) Learn the correct spelling. (3) Learn the correct pronunciation. (4) Use the word in a sentence of your own construction. (5) Use it during the day in your conversation; strive to make it a part of your working vocabulary.

Monday

- Mode

- English

- Grammar

- Expression

- Complete

Tuesday

- Language

- Emotion

- Group

- Mastery

- Dictionary

Wednesday

- Thought

- Symbol

- Ability

- Idea

- Knowledge

Thursday

- Subject

- Predicate

- Vocabulary

- Practice

- History

Friday

- Memory

- Sentence

- Write

- Right

- Purpose

Saturday

- Propose

- Growth

- Learn

- Teach

- Pronounce

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 2

Dear Comrade:

Review Lesson 1 before taking up this lesson. Do not try to learn by rote the contents of these lessons. Our endeavor is to make you see the reason for every rule and definition before they are given. We want you to see unfolding before you the development of language and through this evolution you can catch a glimpse of the developing life of man. Language like customs, religion, government, has grown with the economic advancement of man. As man has evolved on the economic plane, the material plane, as he has improved his means of providing for himself food and clothes and shelter, he has developed a language suited to his needs.

So we can trace the growth of the race as we study the development of language from the sign language of the primitive savage to the language of the philosopher of today by which he makes known to us the story of the stars, and the innermost secrets of our hearts and minds. Civilization began with the invention of the phonetic alphabet and the use of writing. So the study of language becomes not a dull and stupid conning of useless rules and formulas, but an absorbing study of a living, growing, changing thing that mirrors forth the very life of man.

Think while you study. As you look for the definition of words in your dictionary and realize how many shades of meaning we can express in words, remember that this power is a heritage that comes to us from a long past of incessant struggle.

We of to-day are also writing history in words. By our efforts we are adding new words to the language and giving old words a richer meaning. Brotherhood, justice, for example! The world is coming to understand these glorious words more fully and giving them a new interpretation.

You will see a new beauty and glory in words after you have finished this course and you will have a mastery of this wonderful language of ours.

Watch carefully the use of words in your reading. Especially this week distinguish the nouns and verbs. Use your dictionary constantly and add a few words to your vocabulary every day.

Whenever there is a word used in these lessons which you do not thoroughly understand, look it up at once in your dictionary and master it then and there. Make a list in your note book of the words you look up and at the end of the week go over them again and see if you have them clearly in mind. Watch also the pronunciation of the words. Do not try to do everything all at once, nor should you be discouraged if your progress seems slow. We approach the goal one step at a time and each step takes us nearer and nearer. Just keep steadily at it, Comrade.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

KINDS OF SENTENCES

19. We have found that we use sentences to express our thoughts. But we also find that we use these sentences in different ways for different purposes. Can you notice any difference in the following sentences?

- Two classes have always existed.

- To which class do you belong?

- Join your class in the struggle.

When I say, Two classes have always existed, I am making a simple assertion, stating what I know or believe to be true.

When I say, To which class do you belong? I am asking a question.

When I say, Join your class in the struggle, I am giving a command or making a request.

20. These three kinds of sentences are called assertive, interrogative and imperative.

An assertive sentence states a fact or an opinion.

An interrogative sentence asks a question.

An imperative sentence gives a command, makes a request or expresses a wish.

21. Any of these three kinds of sentences may be exclamatory; that is, it may express surprise, excitement, impatience, or some other emotion. For example:

- Hurrah! Freedom is coming!

This is an assertion expressed as an exclamation.

- Oh! Why should war continue?

Here we have a question in the form of an exclamation.

- Come! Keep your courage up.

In this, we have a command, an imperative sentence, expressed in the form of an exclamation.

An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, excitement or some other emotion.

In these three forms of sentences, the assertive, the interrogative and the imperative, together with the exclamatory, we are able to express every thought and feeling which demands expression, either for practical or artistic purposes.

The sentence is the basis of spoken and written language and as we trace its development we trace the history of the evolution of man and the growth of his power of expression, as he has developed his powers of mind.

22. Every sentence must begin with a capital letter.

Every assertive and imperative sentence should end with a period.

Every interrogative sentence should end with a question mark.

The word in an exclamatory sentence which expresses strong emotion is followed by an exclamation point. The sentence itself if in interrogative form should be followed by a question mark; if in the assertive or the imperative form it may be followed either by an exclamation point or a period.

Exercise 1

Mark the assertive sentences among the following with an a in the blank space. Mark the interrogative sentences with a q for question; the imperative sentences with a c for command; and the exclamatory with an e for exclamation.

1. ...... Books are the true levelers.

2. ...... Put not your trust in princes.

3. ...... To err is human; to forgive divine.

4. ...... What are the rights of a child?

5. ...... Seize common occasions and make them great.

6. ...... Not until all are free, is any free.

7. ...... Freemen! Shall not we demand our own?

8. ...... Is a world of happiness but a Utopian dream?

9. ...... He who will not work, shall not eat.

10. ...... Strike at the polls for freedom!

11. ...... Do the majority want social justice?

12. ...... A friend is the hope of the heart.

13. ...... How beautiful is the vision of peace!

14. ...... Acquire the thinking habit.

15. ...... Is it glorious to die for our country?

16. ...... Lo! Women are waking and claiming their own!

17. ...... Claim your right to the best.

18. ...... What is the highest good?

19. ...... Workers of the world, unite!

20. ...... To remain ignorant is to remain a slave.

WORDS—THEIR USES

23. We have learned from our study that we use sentences to express our thoughts. These sentences are made up of words; therefore we call words parts of speech. Words are only fractions or parts of speech, and it is by combining them into sentences that we are able to express our thoughts.

There are many thousands of words in the English language. It would be impossible for us to study each word separately. But these words, like people, are divided into classes, so we can study each class of words. These thousands of words are divided into classes much as people are, or rather as people ought to be; for words are divided into classes according to the work which they do. In the Industrial Commonwealth there will be no upper or lower class, but men will be divided into groups according to the work which they do. There will be various industrial groups, groups of agricultural workers, groups of clerical workers, etc. So words are divided into classes according to the work which they do in helping us to express our ideas.

24. Words are divided into kinds or classes according to their use in sentences.

There are eight of these classes of words, called parts of speech.

THE NAMES OF THINGS

25. What a word does determines what part of speech it is. When primitive man, long ago, first began to use words, in all probability the first words which he invented were those used to name familiar objects about him. He invented a word for man, boy, tree, animal, etc. Gradually, all the things he met in his daily life received a name. About one half of the words in our language are of this class, the names of things.

Every word which is used as a name of something is called a noun. This word noun is derived from the Latin word which means name, so it is quite the same thing as saying name. Notice the following sentences:

- Boys run.

- Fish swim.

- Horses neigh.

- Soldiers march.

- Flags wave.

- Flowers fade.

- Girls study.

- Winds blow.

- Men work.

All of the words used like boys, girls, fish, horses, soldiers, flag, winds, flowers and men, are the names of objects, therefore all of these words are nouns. The subject of a sentence is always a noun or a word used as a noun. However, we may use in a sentence many nouns besides the noun which is used as the subject, the noun about which the statement is made. We will study the use of these nouns later in our lessons.

The famous palace of the kings of the Moors, at Granada, in Spain, was called the Alhambra. We have six nouns in this sentence, palace, kings, Moors, Granada, Spain and Alhambra, but the noun palace is the noun which is the subject—the noun which is the name of that about which something is said. Palace is the subject; and was called is the predicate in this sentence.

26. A noun is a word used as the name of something.

Now we want to learn to distinguish every word that is used as a name. Pick out the nouns as you read your books and papers until you are able to tell every word which is used as a noun, the name of something.

In the following paragraph, the nouns are printed in italics. Carefully study these nouns:

The fire in the grate, the lamp by the bedside, the water in the tumbler, the fly on the ceiling above, the flower in the vase on the table, all things have their history and can reveal to us nature's invisible forces.

Exercise 2

Underscore every noun in the following quotation:

The whole history of the earth has been one of gradual development, of progress, of slow and painful climbing through the ages. Not only have the hills and the mountains, the rivers and the stars, the trees and the cattle, the beasts and the birds, been developing; but man himself—his mind and his body—has been developing. Men are marvelous little creatures; they have weighed the sun in their balances, measured the stars and analyzed the light and beauty of the rainbow; they have sounded the depths of the ocean; they have learned how the sun and the mountains were born and the rivers were laid in their mighty beds; they have learned how the seas became salt, what the stars are made of. They have learned so much, and yet when it comes to matters of time and space, and law and motion, they still know so little. The only man who is conscious of his ignorance is he who has learned a great deal.—McMillan.

WORDS THAT ASSERT

27. After the primitive man had invented names for the things about him, probably his next step was to invent words of action. He very naturally wanted to tell what all of these various things did. So the words that tell what things do, the words of action, the words that assert, came into the language. A child follows much the same development. As you can readily observe, it first names the objects about it, then learns the words that tell what these objects do.

So the words that tell what things do, become the second class of words. These words we call verbs. The word verb, like the word noun, is taken into our language from the Latin. In Latin, the word verbum means the word; and the verb is practically the word in a sentence, for we cannot have a sentence without a verb. You may string a number of words together, but if you do not have an asserting word, you will not have a sentence.

Notice the following sentences:

- Men work.

- Flowers fade.

- Snow flies.

- Winds blow.

In these sentences, the words work, fade, flies and blow, are the words used to assert or say something of the subject, hence they are the verbs in these sentences.

28. Sometimes it takes more than one word to express the action or make the assertion. Notice the following sentences:

- The men are working.

- The boy has been studying.

In the first sentence it takes two words, are working, to make the assertion; in the second, three are required, has been studying. These groups of words are called verb phrases.

29. A verb is a word that asserts.

A verb phrase is a group of words used as a single verb.

The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master. It is not hard to find the verb in short sentences, but in longer sentences it is sometimes difficult.

For example:

- The sun shines.

- The man walks.

- The boys strike.

We very easily see that shine, walk and strike are the verbs in these sentences. But let us add other words, as for example:

- The sun shines brightly.

- The man walks for his health.

- The boys strike the dog.

Now we are very apt to confuse the verb with the words which state how and why the action is performed, or the object towards which the action is directed. But in these sentences, shine and walks and strike are still the verbs, just as in the first sentences. The verb asserts the action; the other words merely give additional information about how or why or upon what the action is performed.

30. Another thing which makes it difficult for us to distinguish verbs in English is that the same word may be used both as a noun and as a verb; but always remember that words are separated into classes according to the work which they do. When a word is used as a name it is a noun; when it is used as an asserting word it is a verb. Note the following sentences:

- The play made the child tired.

- The children play in the yard.

In the first sentence play is a noun, the subject of the verb made. In the second sentence play is the verb, telling what the children do. Always classify words according to the work which they perform in the sentence. This will help you very much in finding your verb.

31. Then we have some verbs which do not assert action but express rather a connection or relation between the subject and some other word or words. For example:

- The dog belongs to the man.

- The girl is happy.

In these sentences belongs and is are the verbs. Belongs asserts or shows the relation between the dog and the man. Is shows the relation between the girl and happy. If we simply say girl and happy, we do not show any connection between them or make any statement relating the two, but when we say, The girl is happy, we are asserting something, and the word is makes the assertion.

Or when we say, The girl was happy, or The girl will be or may be happy, in each of these cases, it is the verb or verb phrase was or will be or may be, that asserts or shows the relation between the subject girl and the descriptive word happy. You will observe that the verbs will be and may be are composed of more than one word and are verb phrases.

We will study the verb in succeeding lessons, but let us remember from this lesson that the word or group of words that makes the assertion in the sentence is the verb. Remember too that every sentence must contain a verb.

Get this basic principle firmly fixed in mind that what a word does decides what it is—to what part of speech it belongs, and that every class of words fulfills its own function in sentence building.

32. Remember:—

Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate.

Every sentence must express a complete thought.

Every sentence must contain a verb.

A noun is the name of something.

A verb is a word that asserts.

What a word does determines what it is.

Study carefully the following quotation. The verbs are printed in italics.

Slowly, painfully, proceeds the struggle of man against the power of Mammon. The past is written in tears and blood. The future is dim and unknown, but the final outcome of this world-wide struggle is not in doubt. Freedom will conquer slavery, truth will prevail over error, justice will triumph over injustice, the light will vanquish the darkness; and humanity will rise in the glory of universal brotherhood.—Warren                                                                             .

Exercise 3

Underscore all verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation:

The Dream of Labor: Ours is not the cause of one class, of one sex, of one tribe, of one city, of one state, of one continent.

It is the wish for a better world where Man shall be Man; where the beast shall become subdued; where everything shall lead to complete development; where the good of each shall be bound up in the good of all; where all shall feel the sorrows of each and shall run to his rescue.

A glimpse of this ideal takes us into the Land of Promise, where peace and plenty shall reign supreme; where brothers shall no longer battle among themselves, but for one another; where the atmosphere shall be laden with love, the love that saves; where the hate that kills shall be unknown; where heart and brain shall work together and shall make life better and more complete; where the fullness of life shall be for all and where men and women shall be as happy at their work as little children at their play.

The mere glimpse into that land makes life worth living, makes work worth doing, makes dreams worth dreaming, gives us hope and faith—the faith we need in the labor for our cause, the faith which shall help us win.—Oscar Leonard.

Exercise 4

We have found that there are a number of words in English which may be used either as nouns or verbs, depending upon the function they serve in the sentence. In the following sentences underscore the nouns with a single line, the verbs with two lines:

1. They man the boats.

2. The man has a boat.

3. The women pass this way.

4. They held the pass for hours.

5. Little children work in the mines.

6. The work of the world is done by machinery today.

7. The armies will cross the bridge.

8. He built a cross of rude stones.

9. The leopard cannot change its spots.

10. We will force a change in the law.

Exercise 5

In the following poem, mark every noun and every verb and verb phrase. You will find the verb phrases in several places divided by the word not, as in I do not obey. Do obey is the verb phrase. We will learn to what part of speech not belongs a little later.

I DO NOT OBEY, I THINK.

"Captain, what do you think," I asked,

"Of the part your soldiers play?"

The Captain answered, "I do not think—

I do not think, I obey."

"Do you think your conscience was meant to die,

And your brains to rot away?"

The Captain answered, "I do not think—

I do not think, I obey."

"Do you think you should shoot a patriot down,

And help a tyrant slay?"

The Captain answered, "I do not think—

I do not think, I obey."

"Then if this is your soldier's code," I cried,

"You're a mean, unmanly crew;

And with all your feathers and gilt and braid,

I am more of a man than you;

"For whatever my lot on earth may be

And whether I swim or sink,

I can say with pride, 'I do not obey—

I do not obey, I think.'"

—Ernest Crosby.

SPELLING

LESSON 2

The twenty-six letters in the English alphabet are divided into vowels and consonants. A vowel is a letter which represents a sound of the human voice but slightly interrupted by the vocal organs. The vowels are a, e, i, o and u. All of the remaining letters of the alphabet are consonants. A consonant is a letter which represents a sound of the human voice greatly obstructed by the vocal organs.

Consonant is from the Latin con, meaning with, and sono—I sound. So it means literally I sound with.

The consonants are produced by union of the breath with the vocal organs. The consonant sounds are so called because they are always "sounded with" a vowel; they are used only in combination with vowels in forming words or syllables.

In English a consonant alone never forms a word or a syllable. Sound the different consonants b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x and z, by themselves and you will see how the sound of the breath is obstructed or changed by the use of the vocal organs—the lips, the tongue, the teeth, etc.—in making these various sounds.

W and y are sometimes vowels and sometimes consonants. W and y are vowels when they are used with another vowel representing a vowel sound as in awe, new, joy, eye, etc. Y is sometimes used as a vowel by itself as in by, cry, etc. W and y are consonants when they are used at the beginning of a syllable or before a vowel in the same syllable as in wine, twine, yield and year.

Look up the meaning of the words in this week's lesson. Master the spelling and use them in sentences of your own construction.

Monday

- Reason

- Evolution

- Justice

- Thorough

- Beauty

Tuesday

- Assertive

- Review

- Surprise

- Basis

- Separate

Wednesday

- Interrogative

- Period

- Capital

- Capitol

- Function

Thursday

- Example

- Contain

- Imperative

- Question

- Speech

Friday

- Method

- Various

- Familiar

- Industry

- Alphabet

Saturday

- Travel

- Sense

- Cents

- Sail

- Sale

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 3

Dear Comrade:

In this lesson we are taking up a short study of the different parts of speech. In later lessons we will study each part of speech more thoroughly but this lesson covers the ground quickly and briefly. It is sufficient, however, to form a basis for our understanding of the evolution of language.

You will see, as you study this lesson, how each part of speech has been added to meet a growing need. There are many, many thousand words in the English language, but they can all be grouped under these eight parts of speech, for they all answer in some way to one of these great needs.

The object in studying grammar, as in studying any other science, is not to fill one's mind with a great many unrelated facts—facts which may or may not prove useful to one hereafter. The object of all study is to develop one's power of observation and one's ability to think. Added to this must be the practical ability to make use of this knowledge. Here the study of grammar has an advantage over the study of every other science. It deals with words, something which we use every day.

You do not need any laboratory or expensive apparatus in order to study grammar. All that you need lies ready to your hand. And in addition to this the knowledge which you gain is something which is of practical use to every man and woman no matter what their work, no matter what their place or position in life may be.

Remember that dogmatism has no place in the study of grammar. "Grammarians are the guardians, not the authors, of language." We do not say, "You should say this or that, or you violate a rule of grammar," but we say "The common usage among those who use good English is thus and so." If we do not believe that the common usage is the best usage, then we follow the democratic method of seeking to change the common usage into that which we consider the more sensible way. Thus, those who advocate simplified spelling have not sought to pass a law whereby every one should be compelled to spell words exactly as they sound, but they have striven to influence our writers and people in general to use this more sensible way of spelling words.

So think while you study. Do not try to learn rules and formulas. See why the rules and formulas exist. Once having seen this you do not need to learn them—you know them already. The study of any language is an intellectual discipline of the highest order.

So apply yourself diligently to this most interesting study and you will see that the result of this application will affect your daily life in every particular.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

WORDS ADDED TO NOUNS

33. When man began to invent words to express his ideas of the world in which he lived, we have found that probably the first need was that of names for the things about him. So we have nouns. The second need was of words to tell what these things do, and so we have verbs. But primitive man soon felt the need of other classes of words.

The objects about us are not all alike. For example, we have a word for man, but when we say man that is not sufficient to describe the many different kinds of men. There are tall men, short men, white men, black men, strong men, weak men, busy men, lazy men. There are all sorts of men in the world, and we need words by which we can describe these different types and also indicate which man we mean.

34. So we have a class of words which are called adjectives. Adjective is a word derived from the Latin. It comes from the Latin word ad, meaning to, and the Latin word jecto, which means to throw; hence an adjective is a word thrown to or added to a noun.

If you will stop to think for a moment, you will see that it is by their qualities that we know the things about us. Some men are strong, some are weak, some are tall, some are short. These qualities belong to different men. And we separate or group them into classes as they resemble each other or differ from one another in these qualities. Things are alike which have the same qualities; things are unlike whose qualities are different. Apples and oranges are alike in the fact that both are round, both are edible. They are unlike in the fact that one is red and one is yellow; one may be sour and the other sweet. So we separate them in our minds because of their different qualities; and we have a class of words, adjectives, which describe these various qualities.

35. We use adjectives for other purposes also. For example, when we say trees, we are not speaking of any particular trees, but of trees in general. But we may add certain adjectives which point out particular trees, as for example: these trees, or those trees, or eight trees or nine trees. These adjectives limit the trees of which we are speaking to the particular trees pointed out. They do not express any particular qualities of the trees like the adjectives tall or beautiful express, but they limit the use of the word trees in its application. So we have our definition of the adjective.

36. An adjective is a word added to a noun to qualify or limit its meaning.

Exercise 1

Underscore all of the adjectives in the following quotation. Notice also the nouns and verbs in this quotation.

Yet fearsome and terrible are all the footsteps of men upon the earth, for they either descend or climb.

They descend from little mounds and high peaks and lofty altitudes, through wide roads and narrow paths, down noble marble stairs and creaky stairs of wood—and some go down to the cellar, and some to the grave, and some down to the pits of shame and infamy, and still some to the glory of an unfathomable abyss where there is nothing but the staring, white, stony eye-balls of Destiny.

They descend and they climb, the fearful footsteps of men, and some limp, some drag, some speed, some trot, some run—they are quiet, slow, noisy, brisk, quick, feverish, mad, and most awful in their cadence to the ears of the one who stands still.

But of all the footsteps of men that either descend or climb, no footsteps are so fearsome and terrible as those that go straight on the dead level of a prison floor, from a yellow stone wall to a red iron gate.—From The Walker. Giovannitti.

WORDS ADDED TO VERBS

37. From our study, you see how our classes of words grew out of man's need of them in expressing his thoughts. And notice also how the many thousands of words in our language can all be grouped under these few classes. We name the things about us; we invent words to tell what these things do; we have another class of words which describe the things which we have named; and now we come to a fourth class of words for which we also find great need.

When we come to tell what things do, we find that we need words which will tell us how or where or when these things are done. Notice the following sentences:

- The men work busily.

- The men work late.

- The men work now.

- The men work here.

- The men work hard.

- The men work well.

- The men work inside.

- The men work more.

We would have a complete sentence and express a complete thought if we said simply, The men work, but each of these words which we have added, like busily, hard, late, etc., adds something to the meaning of the verb. These words add something to the action which is asserted by the verb, for they show how and when and where and how much the men work.

38. We call this class of words adverbs, because they are added to verbs to make the meaning more definite, very much as adjectives are added to nouns. Adverb means literally to the verb.

An adverb will always answer one of these questions: how? when? how long? how often? how much? how far? or how late? If you want to find the adverbs in your sentences just ask one of these questions, and the word that answers it will be the adverb.

39. An adverb may be used also with an adjective. Notice the following sentences:

- The book is very long.

- Too many people never think.

Notice here that the adverbs very and too modify the adjectives long and many.

40. Adverbs may also be used with other adverbs. Notice the following sentences:

- He speaks very distinctly.

- He walks too slowly.

Here the adverbs very and too are used with the adverbs distinctly and slowly, and add to their meaning. We will study more fully in later lessons concerning both the adjective and the adverb, but we can see by this brief study why adverbs were added as a class of words, a part of speech, for they are absolutely necessary in order to describe the action expressed by verbs, and also to add to the meaning of adjectives and other adverbs. Hence we have our definition of an adverb.

41. An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Exercise 2

Underscore all adverbs in the following sentences:

1. He will not come today.

2. Here and now is the day of opportunity.

3. Very slowly, but even then entirely too rapidly, the fire crept forward.

4. The room was very quiet and still.

5. He was too weary to go farther.

6. One must learn to feel deeply and think clearly in order to express himself eloquently.

7. Ferrer stood there, so calmly and so bravely facing the firing squad.

8. He was condemned to death because he stood uncompromisingly and courageously for the education of the masses.

9. Ferrer understood thoroughly that the schools of today cleverly and effectively adapt their teaching to maintain the present system of society.

10. He said "The school imprisons the children physically, intellectually and morally."

WORDS USED IN PLACE OF NOUNS

42. Now we come to study another class of words which are also very necessary in order to express our ideas. Suppose you had just arrived in a strange town and you wanted to find the way to a friend's house. You inquire of a stranger, "Can you tell me who lives in the house on the corner?"

Notice the words you and me and who. You could not call the stranger by name for you do not know his name, and hence you say you. And if you used your own name instead of me, he would not recognize it, and you would both be puzzled to find a substitute for that little word who.

If you knew the stranger and he knew your name, you might say, "Can Mr. Smith tell Mr. Jones what person lives in the house on the corner." But this would sound very stilted and unnatural and awkward. So we have these little words like you and me and who, which we use in place of nouns. These words are called pronouns. This word is taken from the Latin also. In the Latin the word pro means in place of. So the word pronoun means literally in place of a noun.

43. A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun.

These pronouns are very useful little words. They save us a great deal of tiresome repetition. Notice the awkwardness of the following:

- The workers will succeed in gaining the workers' freedom if the workers learn solidarity.

And yet this would be the way we would have to express this idea if we did not have pronouns. Instead we say:

- The workers will succeed in gaining their freedom if they learn solidarity.

44. We will study the pronoun in detail in later lessons, but we can readily recognize these words which are used in place of nouns. The most common pronouns are:

- I

- you

- he

- she

- it

- we

- they

- me

- him

- her

- us

- them

- my

- your

- his

- her

- its

- our

- their

- that

- which

- who

- whose

- whom

- what

Exercise 3

Underscore the pronouns in the following story:

A man in South Africa picked up a small piece of stone. It was dirty and rough.

"Make me beautiful," said the stone.

"I shall have to hurt you," said the man.

"Well, if it hurts me, I will bear it," said the stone.

So the man took it to a clever craftsman, who put it into a tight vise, and cut it with his sharp instrument.

"Oh!" cried the stone.

And he ground it till the dust fell all about it.

"Oh!" cried the stone.

And he polished it very hard.

"Oh!" cried the stone.

And then he set it in a crown and sent it to the Queen. On a sunny day she wore her crown, and the stone—it was a diamond—sparkled in long rays of crimson and green and yellow and silvery white. And all the people greeted their queen. She showed them her crown and they praised the beautiful stone.

The training was hard, but the improvement was glorious.

PREPOSITIONS

45. Notice the following sentences:

- I want the book on the box.

- I want the book under the box.

- I want the book in the box.

- I want the book beside the box.

- I want the book behind the box.

- I want the book beyond the box.

Do you notice any word in these sentences which does not belong to any of the classes of words which we have studied? I is a pronoun, want is a verb, the is an adjective, book is a noun, the is an adjective, box is a noun; but the words, on, under, in, beside, behind and beyond are not nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs or pronouns.

Yet would it be possible to express the meaning in these sentences without these words? Read the sentences without them, and you will see that no one could tell the relation which you wish to express between the book and the box. And you will notice too that each word expresses a different relation, for it means one thing to say on the box and another thing to say in the box, and so through the list.

46. The words which are used to show this relation are called prepositions. The groups of words introduced by the preposition, like on the box and in the box, and so on, are called prepositional phrases. The noun which follows a preposition as box follows the prepositions in, on, beside, beyond, etc., is called the object of the preposition.

Preposition is a word which comes into our language from the Latin. It is formed from the Latin pre, which means before, and the Latin verb which means to place, so preposition means literally to place before. It is given this name because it is placed before the noun or pronoun which is its object. Therefore our definition of a preposition is as follows:

47. A preposition is a word that shows the relation of its object to some other word.

48. Either a noun or a pronoun may be the object of a preposition. Notice the following sentences:

- Bring the book to me.

- Lay the book on the table.

- He will speak to you.

- I will speak to the man.

In these sentences the noun table is the object of the preposition on; the pronoun me is the object of the preposition to; and in the last two sentences the pronoun you and the noun man are the objects of the preposition to.

49. There are not many prepositions in the language and they are easily learned and easily distinguished. Here is a list of the most common and the most important prepositions. Use each one in a sentence.

- at

- across

- around

- about

- among

- above

- against

- along

- behind

- beside

- between

- below

- beyond

- by

- before

- beneath

- down

- for

- from

- in

- into

- off

- on

- over

- to

- toward

- under

- up

- upon

- with

- within

- without

Exercise 4

Underscore the prepositions in the following sentences:

- He went to the door and looked out upon the field.

- Over the river and through the woods, to Grandfather's house we go.

- He saw them in the distance as they were coming toward him.

- They went along the road, across the bridge, and hid among the trees at the foot of the hill.

- They came from Minneapolis down the river by boat.

- The war between the classes is a struggle against exploitation.

- The army was intrenched behind the barricades before dawn.

- His claim was within the law but without justice.

CONJUNCTIONS

50. We have found that the preposition is a very important connective word. It connects two words and shows what one of them has to do with the other, but the preposition is not the only connective word which we use in English. We have another part of speech which performs an important function as a connective word. Notice the following sentence:

- Men and women struggle for their rights.

Can you find a word in this sentence which is a connective word besides the preposition for? Did you notice that little word and? The noun men and the noun women are both subjects of the verb struggle, and they are joined by this little connective word and. If we did not have this word we would have to use two sentences to express our thought, thus:

- Men struggle for their rights.

- Women struggle for their rights.

But with the use of this connective word and we can combine these two sentences and express it all in one sentence:

- Men and women struggle for their rights.

This word is used in a different manner from the preposition. The preposition connects two words and makes one modify the other. When we say, Get the book on the table, the phrase on the table designates the book just as much as if we had said, Get the green book. So the use of the preposition enables us to show the relation between two words and to make one word describe or modify the other.

51. This little word and in the sentence, Men and women struggle for their rights, is a connective word also, but it connects two words that are used in the same way, so it is a different sort of connective word from the preposition. Words used in this way are called conjunctions. Conjunction is a word which is taken from the Latin, being made up of the Latin word con, which means together, and the Latin verb juncto, which means to join. So conjunction means literally to join together.

52. A conjunction is a word that connects sentences or parts of sentences.

Notice the following sentence:

- The class struggle is waged on the political field and on the industrial field.

Here we have the conjunction and connecting the two phrases on the political field and on the industrial field. Without the use of this connective word, we would have to use two sentences to express these two thoughts:

- The class struggle is waged on the political field.

- The class struggle is waged on the industrial field.

53. So a conjunction may be used to connect phrases as well as words.

Now notice the following sentences:

- He will speak. I will listen.

- He will speak, and I will listen.

- He will speak, but I will listen.

- He will speak, if I will listen.

- He will speak, therefore I will listen.

- He will speak, because I will listen.

- He will speak, until I will listen.

54. These sentences are joined by different conjunctions, and the conjunction used alters the meaning of the sentence.

The conjunction is a very useful part of speech. Without it we would have many disconnected sentences requiring tiresome repetition of the same words. Like prepositions, there are not many conjunctions in English and they are readily recognized.

55. We will study about these conjunctions at length in later lessons. If you consult the following list of those most commonly used, you can easily pick out the conjunctions in your reading:

- and

- as

- as if

- after

- although

- as soon as

- because

- besides

- before

- but

- either

- for

- hence

- in order that

- lest

- neither

- nor

- or

- since

- still

- so

- then

- though

- that

- than

- therefore

- till

- until

- unless

- while

- whether

- yet

The seven classes of words which we have studied make up all of our sentences. The hundreds of words which we use in forming our sentences and expressing our thoughts belong to these seven classes. They are either nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions or conjunctions.

Exercise 5

Underscore the conjunctions in the following sentences. Notice whether they connect words or phrases or sentences.

1. We cannot win unless we are organized.

2. Books and music are true friends.

3. Men, women and children work under conditions neither proper nor just.

4. We must educate and organize.

5. The workers on the farms and in the factories must be united.

6. Winter has come and the birds are going South.

7. We have been ignorant, therefore we have been exploited.

8. We must learn before we can teach.

9. We do not understand the situation, because we do not know the facts.

10. Do you know whether these statements are true or false?

IT CAN BE DONE

Somebody said that it couldn't be done,

But he, with a chuckle, replied

That "maybe it couldn't," but he would be one

Who wouldn't say so till he tried.

So he buckled right in, with a trace of a grin

On his face. If he worried he hid it.

He started to sing as he tackled the thing

That couldn't be done—and he did it.

Somebody scoffed, "Oh, you'll never do that;

At least no one ever has done it."

But he took off his coat and he took off his hat,

And the first thing we knew he'd begun it;

With the lift of his chin, and a bit of a grin,

Without any doubting or quiddit,

He started to sing as he tackled the thing

That couldn't be done—and he did it.

There are thousands to tell you it can not be done;

There are thousands to prophesy failure;

There are thousands to point out to you, one by one,

The dangers that wait to assail you.

But buckle right in, with a lift of your chin,

Then take off your coat and go to it;

Just start in to sing as you tackle the thing

That "can not be done,"—and you'll do it.

INTERJECTIONS

56. There is another class of words which we use with sentences, but which are really not parts of the sentences. They are emotional expressions which seem to belong more to the natural language than to the invented language. For example:

- Oh! You hurt me!

- Aha! Now I have you.

Oh, used in this way, is very apt to sound like a groan, and aha like a shout of triumph. These words do not really belong in the construction of the sentence. The sentence would be complete without them, but they are thrown in to express the emotion which accompanies the thought. We call expressions such as these interjections. Interjection is from the Latin and means literally thrown into the midst of. It comes from the Latin word inter, which means between, and the Latin verb jecto, to throw, so it literally means to throw between.

Some of these words imitate sounds, as for example:

- Bang! There goes another shot.

- Ding-dong! There goes the first bell.

We do not use interjections very frequently in writing on scientific subjects that express deep thought, but you will find them often used in poetry, fiction, oratory or any emotional writing. Therefore we have our definition of an interjection:

57. An interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase used to express feeling or to imitate some sound.

58. Following is a list of commonly used interjections. Use them in sentences of your own.

- oh

- hello

- bravo

- ahoy

- aha

- hurrah

- bow wow

- ssh

- alas

- hist

- whirr

- pshaw

- fie

- whoa

- ding-dong

- rub-a-dub

Exercise 6

Mark the interjections in the following sentences. Notice those which express emotion and those which imitate sound.

1. Oh! Is it possible.

2. Hurrah! We have good news at last.

3. Whirr! Whirr! goes the giant machine.

4. Come! Keep up your courage.

5. What! I cannot believe it.

6. Courage! We shall yet win.

7. Bravo! Let those words ring down the centuries.

8. Ding-dong! the bells ring out the hour!

SPELLING

LESSON 3

Since there are forty-two elementary sounds used in the formation of our words and only twenty-six letters to represent these sounds, some of these letters must necessarily represent more than one sound.

Of the forty-two elementary sounds, eighteen are vowel sounds, but we have only five vowels with which to represent these sounds, so each vowel has several different sounds.

Therefore we must have a key to pronunciation to indicate the various sounds which are represented by these letters used in forming the words. When you look up words in your dictionary you will find the vowels marked by certain signs to indicate the pronunciation. These signs are called diacritical marks.

The following table gives the diacritical marks for the vowels. Study this table and learn to pronounce the words you look up. When you have determined the correct pronunciation of the word, repeat it over to yourself aloud a number of times until you have accustomed your ear to the correct pronunciation.

Different dictionaries use different keys to pronunciation. This table is taken from the dictionary which we are using in connection with this course—Winston's New Universal Self-Pronouncing Dictionary.

Key to Pronunciation

- ā as in late, fade.

- ä as in mar, father.

- ȧ as in mask, dance.

- a as in cat, had.

- aw as in awl, fall.

- ē as in he, feet.

- ẽ as in her, verge.

- e as in let, men.

- ī as in line, time.

- i as in tin, little.

- ō as in vote, home.

- ô as in orb, form.

- o as in lot, odd.

- oi as in oil, join.

- o̅o̅ as in moon, school.

- oo as in cook, foot.

- ou as in out, house.

- ū as in mute, unit.

- u as in nut, drum.

The spelling lesson for this week is composed of words containing the different vowel sounds. Look up in your dictionary and mark all the a's in Monday's lesson, all the e's in Tuesday's lesson, all the i's in Wednesday's lesson, all the o's in Thursday's lesson, and all the u's in Friday's lesson. In Saturday's lesson note the use of w and y as vowels.

Monday

- Pause

- Adjective

- Lazy

- Quality

- Advance

Tuesday

- Resemble

- Descend

- Adverb

- Interjection

- Complete

Wednesday

- Limit

- Define

- Distinct

- Imprison

- Civilize

Thursday

- Form

- Footsteps

- Proof

- Report

- Common

Friday

- Union

- Under

- Unusual

- Summer

- Commune

Saturday

- Comply

- Employ

- Vowel

- News

- Lawful

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 4

Dear Comrade:

We are studying in this lesson a most interesting part of our language, the words that are the names of things. If we could trace these names of things and the order and time of their coming into the language of men we would have a progressive history of mankind. Way back yonder in the dim dawn of history, men lived upon fruit and nuts. They had no knowledge of the use of fire and could not use foods that required cooking. They communicated with one another by signs. Then they discovered fire and invented the bow and arrow. They could now use fish and flesh for food and they commenced to use articulate speech. This stage has been called the Middle Stage of Savagery. With the invention of the bow and arrow, began the third stage of savagery which merged into the first stage of barbarism with the invention of pottery.

There are three stages of barbarism before we come to the beginning of the era of civilization which begins with the use of the phonetic alphabet and the production of literary records. All tribes that have never attained the art of pottery are classed as savages and those who possess this art but have never attained a phonetic alphabet and the use of writing are classed as barbarians. Civilization began with the spoken and written language and it has been well said that all that separates us from savagery is a wall of books. It is upon the accumulated wisdom of the past that we build. Without this we would be helpless.

So these various names of things have come to us with developing evolving life. As the men of the past gained a knowledge of the use of fire, as they learned to bake the clay and make various utensils; to heat and forge the iron into weapons; to conquer nature in all her phases, to feed the race, to clothe the race, to shelter the race more adequately, our language has grown in volume, strength and beauty.

The study of words and their uses is of great importance to you. Master the few rules necessary and watch your words daily. We are living in an age full of wondrous things and yet many of us have almost as limited a vocabulary as the men of those bygone days, who had never dreamed of the marvels that are commonplace to us.

As you use your dictionary watch closely the meaning of the words and choose the words that most aptly express your ideas. Listen to good English spoken as often as you can. Read good English. Mark the difference between good and bad English and gradually you will find yourself using good English naturally and continually.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE

CLASSES OF NOUNS

59. We have learned that the words in a sentence are classified according to the work which each word does. The words which assert are called verbs; the words which are the names of things are called nouns. But now we shall see that these words are again divided into classes according to the special work which they perform. Just as we may gather the people of the world into one great class, the working class, then classify them according to the industry in which they work, thus some are farmers, some teachers, some factory workers; then each class may be subdivided according to the special work which they perform, as truck farmers, high school teachers, machinists, etc.

So we find that nouns are divided into classes according to their meaning in the sentence.

In the sentence, Lincoln was a man of the people, we have two nouns referring to the same person, Lincoln and man, but they are different kinds of names. The word man is a name that may apply to any one of a million persons but the name Lincoln applies to one person only. Some nouns, then, represent a thing as being of a certain kind or class, without showing which particular one is meant. Other nouns are names given to designate a particular individual. These are called common and proper nouns.

60. A proper noun is a special name meant for only one person, place or thing.

All other nouns are common nouns.

A common noun is a name which belongs to all things of a class of objects.

Every proper noun should begin with a capital letter.

Indicate the proper nouns in the following list by drawing a line under the letters that ought to be capitals:

- king

- month

- city

- france

- dog

- virginia

- war

- wilson

- november

- doctor

- colonel

- napoleon

- chicago

- governor

- independence day

- freedom

- ocean

- atlantic ocean

- thanksgiving

- thanksgiving day

- uncle william

- thursday

- week

- general sherman

- karl marx

- union

- labor

- united mine workers

- newspaper

- the daily call

Write the special or proper names of several individuals in each of the following classes:—as city,—Chicago, New York, etc.

River, king, author, country, state, inventor, martyr, month, book, college.

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

61. Some nouns are the names of groups or collections of things and are called collective nouns.

Many soldiers taken together form collectively an army—a number of sheep form a drove. Many of these group or collective nouns will readily occur to your mind.

A collective noun is one that in the singular form, denotes a number of separate persons or things.

Exercise 1

Opposite each of the following collective nouns, write the name of the individuals represented by the collection; as an army of soldiers; a swarm of bees; a flock of birds.

- A gang of.......

- A committee of.......

- A herd of.......

- A drove of.......

- A hive of.......

- A corps of.......

- A suite of.......

- A group of.......

- A class of.......

- A multitude of.......

Fill the following blanks with appropriate collective nouns.

- A......of horses.

- A......of sailors.

- A......of wolves.

- A......of savages.

- A......of singers.

- A......of girls.

- A......of ships.

- A......of quail.

- A......of birds.

- A......of workers.

ABSTRACT NOUNS

62. When primitive man began to name the objects about him, doubtless he first named the things which he could see, hear, taste, smell and touch,—the objects which he could perceive by the five senses. Then gradually he came to understand that these objects had certain qualities which he could consider apart from the object itself.

He hunted among the stones to find those which were suitable for making his arrow-heads. For this purpose he needed the hardest stone which he could find, so hardness became something which he could think of as something apart from the object itself.

He saw the men about him and found a name for them. Then he knew that some men were stronger than others, so strength was a quality which he could consider apart from the man himself.

These men performed certain actions; they ran, they climbed,—so running and climbing became actions which he could think of as something apart from any individual.

He noted too that men lived in certain conditions; for example, some men were free, some were slaves, so he came to think of slavery and freedom as conditions which could be thought of as something apart from the individual.

So we draw away, or separate certain ideas; the quality from the thing which has it and the action from the thing which does it and the condition from the thing which is in it. These nouns which are used to describe these qualities, actions or conditions are called abstract nouns. Abstract is a word derived from the Latin abs, away from, and tractus, drawn, so it literally means drawn away from.

The nouns which are names of things which we can see, hear, taste, smell and touch or perceive by any of the five senses are called concrete nouns.

63. A concrete noun is the name of an object which may be perceived by one or more of the five senses.

An abstract noun is the name of a quality, a condition or an action.

64. You remember we found in the study of adjectives that we have a class of adjectives which are used to describe the qualities of objects, as for example—good, noble, honest, true, wise, etc. Since abstract nouns are the names of qualities, many of our abstract nouns are formed from adjectives. Study carefully the following list of adjectives and nouns. Note that the word is an adjective when it is used with a noun to describe certain qualities. It is a noun when it is used by itself to name that quality.

Adjectives

Abstract Nouns

1.

honest

honesty

2.

pure

purity

3.

true

truth

4.

strong

strength

5.

wise

wisdom

6.

good

goodness

7.

bold

boldness

8.

just

justice

9.

silent

silence

10.

wide

width

11.

patient

patience

12.

stupid

stupidity

65. You will notice that another use of abstract nouns is to name actions. The verb is the part of speech which expresses action, therefore many abstract nouns are formed from verbs. Notice the following list:

Verbs

Abstract Nouns

1.

learn

learning

2.

invent

invention

3.

choose

choice

4.

defend

defense

5.

try

trial

6.

judge

judgment

7.

read

reading

8.

please

pleasure

9.

elect

election

10.

move

motion

66. An abstract noun is also the name of a condition. These nouns are derived from the concrete noun which is the name of the person or thing which is in the condition.

Concrete Nouns

Abstract Nouns

1.

slave

slavery

2.

friend

friendship

3.

thief

theft

4.

man

manhood

5.

child

childhood

6.

leader

leadership

7.

hero

heroism

8.

martyr

martyrdom

Exercise 2

Form abstract nouns from the following adjectives, verbs and nouns.

- long

- simple

- rapid

- lovely

- loyal

- fresh

- prove

- sing

- run

- behave

- believe

- reflect

- write

- child

- agent

- infant

- rascal

- clerk

- president

- coward

NUMBER FORM

67. So we find that we classify our nouns according to the special work which they do. Now sometimes we find it necessary to change the form of the noun to make it express our thought. Thus we say, book, man, boy, knife, when we wish to express the idea of only one of each object mentioned. But when we wish to express the idea of more than one of them, we say, books, men, boys, knives.

We say, The boy calls; the boys call. The form of the noun boy is changed by adding an s to it. The meaning has also changed. Boy denotes one lad; boys denotes two or more lads. Any change in form and meaning of words is called inflection. The change to denote more than one object is called number. The word boy, denoting one is in the singular number; the word boys, denoting more than one is in the plural number.

68. Inflection is a change in the form of a word to denote a different application or use.

Number is the form of a noun which shows whether it denotes one or more than one.

The singular number denotes one thing.

The plural number denotes more than one thing.

There are a few rules governing the formation of plurals which we must know, and these rules are of great assistance in correct spelling.

69. Most nouns form their plural by adding s—thus:

boat

day

book

boy

boats

days

books

boys

Long ago in early English all plurals were formed by adding es, and you will read in the first translation of the Bible, for instance, such words as bird-es, cloud-es. Later the e was dropped and s added to the singular without an increase of syllables. But when the singular ends in an s sound, the original syllable es is retained, for two hissing sounds will not unite.

70. So nouns ending in s, x, z, sh or soft ch, form the plural by adding es to the singular. These words end with a sound so much like that of s that we cannot pronounce the plural easily without making another syllable. Thus:

class

tax

topaz

wish

ditch

classes

taxes

topazes

wishes

ditches

71. In words ending with the s sound but with a final e, only s is added to form the plural, but in pronouncing the word we then have two syllables, thus:

house

place

size

cage

niche

houses

places

sizes

cages

niches

72. Letters, figures, signs, etc., are made plural by adding an apostrophe and the letter s ('s), thus:

- Cross your t's and dot your i's.

- Do you know the table of 4's?

While most of our nouns form their plural in this regular way by adding s or es, there are some nouns that form their plural by some other change in the form of the word.

73. Notice the following list of words and their plurals:

- fly

- flies

- city

- cities

- key

- keys

- day

- days

- story

- stories

- enemy

- enemies

- tray

- trays

- boy

- boys

These nouns all end in y, yet they form the plural differently. Some simply add s and the rest change the y to i and add es. Can you discover the reason?

Wherever the y is preceded by a vowel, as e in key, a in tray, o in boy, the plural is formed by adding s. But when the y is preceded by a consonant, as l in fly, r in story, t in city, and m in enemy, the y is changed to i and es added in forming the plural.

If the singular ends in y after a consonant, change y to i and add es in the plural.

74. There are thirteen nouns ending in f and three in fe which form the plural in ves. They are:

beef

beeves

calf

calves

elf

elves

half

halves

leaf

leaves

loaf

loaves

self

selves

sheaf

sheaves

shelf

shelves

staff

staves

thief

thieves

wharf

wharves

wolf

wolves

knife

knives

life

lives

wife

wives

All other nouns in f or fe are regular; adding only s, to form the plural.

75. About forty nouns ending in o after a consonant form the plural in es. The most common ones are:

- buffalo

- cargo

- potato

- tomato

- negro

- veto

- cargo

- echo

- calico

- embargo

- hero

- mulatto

- mosquito

- motto

- tornado

- volcano

- torpedo

- flamingo

Most nouns ending in o form the plural regularly, adding only s, as pianos, banjos, cameos, etc.

76. A few words form their plurals by a change in the word and without adding s or es.

The most common of these words are:

man

men

goose

geese

ox

oxen

woman

women

foot

feet

mouse

mice

brother

brethren

tooth

teeth

child

children

louse

lice

77. Proper nouns, when made plural, generally follow the same rule as common nouns. Thus we write:

- All the Smiths, the Joneses, both the Miss Johnsons, one of the Dr. Davidsons, and the Mrs. Wilsons, were present.

But to prevent the confusion and misunderstanding which might arise in changing the form of a proper noun, we do not change its form in writing the plurals; for example:

- There were eight Henrys, kings of England.

- The two Marys reigned in the kingdom.

It would be confusing to say eight Henries, the two Maries.

The title is made plural when several are referred to, thus:

Mr. Hayes

The Messrs. Hayes

Miss Smith

The Misses Smith

78. The title is made plural when used with several names, thus:

- Messrs. Brown and White.

- Generals Lee and Grant.

- Drs. Long and Larson.

79. In the case of nouns formed of two or more words, when the compound word is so familiar that the parts are not thought of separately the s is added to the whole compound word, as four-in-hands; forget-me-nots; court-yards; spoonfuls; green-houses; etc. But when one of the parts is more important than the others, the s is added to the more important part, thus:

- mothers-in-law

- commanders-in-chief

- hangers-on

- men-of-war

- by-standers

- attorneys-at-law

- passers-by

- step-sons

80. We have many words in our language taken from other languages. They do not form the plural in these languages as we do, and some of these words retain their foreign plurals. Some of the most commonly used of these nouns are the following:

Singular

Plural

alumnus

alumni

analysis

analyses

axis

axes

datum

data

erratum

errata

ellipsis

ellipses

appendix

appendices

bacterium

bacteria

basis

bases

crisis

crises

parenthesis

parentheses

radius

radii

terminus

termini

hypothesis

hypotheses

larva

larvae

madame

mesdames

memorandum

memoranda

phenomenon

phenomena

stratum

strata

thesis

theses

81. The following nouns are treated as singular: news, pains (meaning care), acoustics, mathematics, economics, ethics, molasses, physics, politics, and other nouns ending in ics except athletics. With these always use the s-form of the verb. For example:

- The news is distorted. Not, The news are distorted.

- Economics is an important study. Not, Economics are, etc.

82. The following nouns are always plural:

- alms

- annals

- amends

- antipodes

- bellows

- billiards

- clothes

- dregs

- eaves

- fireworks

- hysterics

- measles

- mumps

- matins

- nippers

- nuptials

- oats

- premises

- proceeds

- pincers

- riches

- rickets

- suds

- scissors

- thanks

- tidings

- tongs

- trousers

- vitals

- victuals

- vespers

With all these nouns always use the form of the verb which is used with the plural subject. Thus:

- Alms are given.

- Riches are easily lost.

83. The following nouns have the same form for both plural and singular, corps, cannon, deer, grouse, heathen, hose, means, odds, series, sheep, species, swine, vermin, wages. You can tell whether the singular or plural is meant by the meaning of the sentence. For example:

The cannon is loaded. Here we are speaking of one cannon.

The cannon used in the war are of tremendous size. Here we know are meant all the big guns used in the war.

When you say, The sheep is lost, we know you mean one sheep, but when you say, The sheep are in the pasture, we know you mean the entire drove.

84. When preceded by a numeral, the following nouns have the same form for both singular and plural. Without the numerals, the plural is formed by the adding of s; brace, couple, dozen, hundred, pair, score, thousand, yoke. For example:

- Thousands enlisted.

- Three thousand enlisted.

- Dozens came at my call.

- Two dozen came when I called.

GENDER

85. All of the changes we have studied so far have been for the purpose of indicating number; but among the nouns that name living beings, many change to show to which sex the object named belongs. These nouns change in form to distinguish between the masculine and the feminine. This is called gender.

Gender is the distinction in words that denotes sex.

The nouns that denote females are called feminine nouns.

The nouns that denote males are called masculine nouns.

86. The feminine form is generally made by the addition of ess to the masculine form. Thus:

prince

princess

master

mistress

host

hostess

count

countess

tiger

tigress

lion

lioness

actor

actress

god

goddess

87. Names of things without sex are, of course, of neither gender, and are called neuter nouns. Neuter means literally neither. Such nouns as mountain, iron, river, chair, are neuter.

Sometimes the feminine is an entirely different word from the masculine. Thus:

king

queen

lord

lady

man

woman

youth

maiden

sir

madam

stag

hind

88. Many nouns that denote living beings apply alike to male and female, and are said to be of common gender. As woman enters more and more into the business world and pursues the same occupations as man, the change in form to denote the feminine is used less frequently, and what we have called the masculine form is used for both sexes, thus:

Poet, waiter, doctor, editor—these nouns are used for both men and women.

POSSESSIVE FORM

89. There is just one more change made in the form of a noun, and that is when we wish to show who or what owns or possesses a thing. Thus we write:

- John's book.

- The boy's hat.

And since this form of the noun denotes possession, it is called the possessive form. Some grammarians call this the possessive case.

The possessive form of nouns is made by adding an apostrophe and s, ('s); thus, day's, lady's, girl's, clerk's.

To plural nouns ending in s add only an apostrophe; thus, days', ladies', girls', clerks'.

When plural nouns do not end in s, their possessive forms are made by adding the apostrophe and s, the same as singular nouns, thus:

- They make men's and women's shoes.

90. In words which end with a sound that resembles that of s, the apostrophe with s forms an additional syllable. Thus:

- James's (pronounced James-ez.)

- Mr. Lynch's (pronounced Lynch-ez.)

The only exception to the rule occurs when the addition of another s would make too many hissing sounds, then we add the apostrophe alone. Thus:

- For goodness' sake.

- In Jesus' name.

91. In forming the possessive of compound nouns, the possessive sign is always placed at the end, thus:

- My son-in-law's sister.

- The man-of-war's cannon.

92. When we wish to show that a thing belongs to two or more persons who are joint owners of it, we add the possessive sign to the last word only, thus:

- Carson, Price and Scott's store.

- Mason and Hamlin's pianos.

If it is a separate ownership that we wish to denote, we place the possessive sign after each name, thus:

- Bring me John's and Mary's books.

- Lee's and Grant's armies met in battle.

Remember that the noun has just three changes in form, one for the plural number, one to denote gender and one for the possessive form. Watch carefully your own language and that of your friends and note if these changes are correctly made.

Exercise 3

Write the plural form of each of the following:

- ax

- beef

- chief

- hero

- knife

- T

- hoof

- man-of-war

- axis

- basis

- cherry

- leaf

- son-in-law

- Mr. Smith

- thief

- Doctor Wood

- alley

- buffalo

- chimney

- staff

- Frenchman

- Miss Brown

- ox

- spoonful

- alto

- calf

- cargo

- two

- 3

- tooth

- foot

- turkey

Exercise 4

Underscore the nouns in the following:

How many abstract nouns?

How many concrete?

How many singular?

How many plural?

FIVE AND FIFTY

Charlotte Perkins Gilman

If fifty men did all the work

And gave the price to five;

And let those five make all the rules—

You'd say the fifty men were fools,

Unfit to be alive.

And if you heard complaining cries

From fifty brawny men,

Blaming the five for graft and greed,

Injustice, cruelty indeed—

What would you call them then?

Not by their own superior force

Do five on fifty live,

But by election and assent—

And privilege of government—

Powers that the fifty give.

If fifty men are really fools—

And five have all the brains—

The five must rule as now we find;

But if the fifty have the mind—

Why don't they take the reins?

Exercise 5

Select all the nouns in the following. Write their singular, plural and possessive forms. Decide whether they are abstract or concrete, common or proper or collective, masculine, feminine or neuter.

Brother!

Whoever you are, wherever you are on all the earth, I greet you.

I extend to you my right hand.

I make you a pledge.

Here is my pledge to you:—

I refuse to kill your father. I refuse to slay your mother's son. I refuse to plunge a bayonet into the breast of your sister's brother. I refuse to slaughter your sweetheart's lover. I refuse to murder your wife's husband. I refuse to butcher your little child's father. I refuse to wet the earth with blood and blind kind eyes with tears. I refuse to assassinate you and then hide my stained fists in the folds of any flag.

Will you thus pledge me and pledge all the members of our working class?—Kirkpatrick.

SPELLING

LESSON 4

Some of our consonants also have more than one sound. We have also certain combinations of consonants which represent one sound. This combination of two letters to represent one sound is called a digraph, as gh, in cough, ch in church. A digraph may either be a combination of two consonants or of two vowels or of a vowel and a consonant. The following table contains the consonants which have more than one sound:

- c—k as in cat

- c—s as in vice

- g—j as in ginger

- g—hard as in go

- s—sh as in sure

- s—zh as in usual

- s—soft as in also

- s—z as in does

- x—soft as in extra

- x—gz as in exist

The following table gives the digraphs most commonly used:

- ng—as in ring, tongue

- ch—as in church and much

- ch—k as in chasm

- ch—sh as in chagrin

- th—as in then, those

- th—as in thin and worth

- ce—sh as in ocean

- ci—sh as in special

- dg—j as in edge

- gh—f as in rough

- ph—f as in sylph

- qu—kw as in quart

- qu—k as in conquer

- sh—as in shall

- si—sh as in tension

- si—zh as in vision

- ti—sh as in motion

The use of these digraphs gives us a number of additional sounds. Notice the use of the consonants which have more than one sound and also the digraphs in the spelling lesson for the week. Mark the consonants and digraphs.

Monday

- Commence

- Certain

- General

- Gradual

- Sugar

Tuesday

- Soldier

- Season

- Pleasure

- Exact

- Exercise

Wednesday

- Singular

- Chemistry

- Chapter

- Machine

- Changing

Thursday

- Theory

- Thither

- Ocean

- Racial

- Budget

Friday

- Philosophy

- Enough

- Quorum

- Bouquet

- Phonetic

Saturday

- Permission

- Asia

- Attention

- Marshall

- Martial

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 5

Dear Comrade:

We want to say just a word about the lesson assignment. This has been arranged on a schedule of days merely to assist you in systematizing your time and making the most of the leisure at your disposal. It is not intended that you should slavishly follow it. We thoroughly believe in individuality and all that contributes toward its development. But we are also confident that many foolish things are done in the name of liberty. Whenever we set ourselves to the performance of any task we necessarily limit our activities in some other direction. Power comes by concentration of force. Whenever we combine with others for the accomplishment of any purpose, it becomes necessary to have some plan of action and we give and take for the end which we have in view. The musician because he follows the law of harmony in music has not given up his liberty. He has only found a new freedom which enables him to make glorious music where only discord reigned before. System in our work does not mean loss of liberty or of individuality but only finding a channel through which individuality can flow into the great ocean of real freedom.

So use this suggestive lesson assignment to meet your own need and find expression for your real individuality in full freedom.

This is the first of several lessons concerning verbs. The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to thoroughly master, so do not be discouraged if there are some parts of this lesson you do not understand. Succeeding lessons will clear up these difficult points. Keep your eyes open as you read every day, and be careful of your spelling and pronunciation.

Some of us mis-spell the common words which we see and use every day. In a student's letter we recently noted that, with our letter before him in which the word was printed in large type and correctly spelled, he spelled College, Colledge.

Do not be satisfied with half-way things or less than that which is worthy of you. Demand the best for yourself. Read aloud this little verse from the Good Grey Poet, Walt Whitman:

"O, the joy of a manly self-hood;

To be servile to none, to defer to none, not to any tyrant known or unknown,

To walk with erect carriage, a step springy and elastic,

To look with calm gaze or with a flashing eye,

To speak with a full and sonorous voice out of a broad chest,

To confront with your personality all the other personalities of the earth."

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

THE WORD THAT ASSERTS

93. You remember when we studied sentences we found that we could not have a sentence without a verb or a word that asserts. The life of a sentence is the verb, for without the verb we cannot assert, question or command. It was on account of this importance that the Romans called the verb, verbum, which meant the word. Verbs, like nouns, are divided into classes.

94. In some of our sentences the verb alone is enough to make a complete assertion, but in other sentences we use verbs that need to be followed by one or more words to complete the assertion. Notice the following sentences:

- The boy ran.

- The boy found the ball.

- The earth revolves.

- The earth is round.

Do you notice any difference in the verbs used in these sentences? Notice that the verbs ran and revolves make the complete assertion about their subjects. Notice the verbs found and is. These are not complete without the addition of the words ball and round. If we say The boy found, The earth is, you at once ask, The boy found WHAT? The earth is WHAT? The sense is incomplete without the addition of these words ball and round. A part of the thought is unexpressed; but when we say The boy found the ball, The earth is round, the sense is complete.

So we have two classes of verbs, COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE VERBS.

95. An incomplete verb is one that requires the addition of one or more words to complete its meaning.

The word or words added to an incomplete verb to complete its meaning are called the complement.

A complete verb is one that requires no complement to complete its meaning.

96. You can readily tell when a verb is complete and when it is incomplete by asking the question What? If you put the question what after the verb, and it makes a sensible question the verb is incomplete. For example:

- Farmers raise—what?

- The employer discharged—what?

- We were—what?

- The earth is—what?

If the question what? does not make sense after the verb, then the verb is complete. For example:

- The sun shines.

- Water flows.

- Men work.

The question what after these verbs would not make sense, as:

- The sun shines—what?

- Men work—what?

- Water flows—what?

So these verbs are complete verbs.

97. The same verb, however, may be complete or incomplete, according to the way in which it is used. For example:

- The corn grows.

- The farmer grows corn.

In the sentence, Corn grows, grows is a complete verb. You could not say The corn grows—what? for it does not grow anything. It merely grows, and the verb grows in this sense is a complete verb. But in the sentence, The farmer grows corn, you are using the verb grows in a slightly different sense. It is an incomplete verb, for you do not mean, The farmer grows, but you mean that the farmer grows CORN.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences, underscore the complete verbs with one line, the incomplete with two lines. Ask the question what? after each verb to determine whether it is complete or incomplete.

- He returned today.

- He returned the book.

- The rose smells sweet.

- He smelled the rose.

- The trees shake in the wind.

- The wind shakes the trees.

- The ship plows through the waves.

- The farmer plows the field.

- The birds sing sweetly.

- They sang the Marseillaise.

- He worries over the matter.

- The matters worry him.

- The table feels rough.

- He feels the rough surface.

- It tastes bitter.

- He tasted the bitter dregs.

Exercise 2

Use the following verbs in sentences as both complete and incomplete verbs, as for example, The snow melts. The sun melts the snow.

- melts

- write

- stopped

- answer

- rings

- fall

- see

- strike

INCOMPLETE VERBS

98. Do you notice any difference in the two verbs in the following sentences:

- The boy found the ball.

- The earth is round.

In the sentence, The boy found the ball, the word ball tells what the boy found. The verb found expresses action; it tells what the boy does. Boy is the subject of the action—the one who performs the action. The word ball is the object of the action. It shows the receiver of the action. In the sentence, The earth is round, is does not express action. The earth is not doing anything, it simply is. The verb is expresses a state or condition and is incomplete, for you do not know what state or condition is expressed until we add the other word or words which describe the state or condition.

Notice the following sentences:

- The earth is round.

- The earth is our home.

- The earth is a sphere.

- The earth is large.

The words round, sphere, home and large, describe the earth which is the subject of the verb is.

99. So we have two classes of incomplete verbs, the verbs that express action and the verbs that express state or condition. The verbs which express action are called transitive verbs. Transitive is a word derived from the Latin, and means literally passing over.

100. So a transitive verb describes an action which passes over from the subject to the object. As for example in the sentence, The player struck the ball, struck is a transitive verb—a verb of action—describing the action of the subject, player, which passes over to the object, ball. Therefore we have our definition of a transitive verb:

A transitive verb is one that has a complement showing who or what receives the action expressed by the verb.

The complement or word that denotes the receiver of the action expressed by a transitive verb is called the object.

When you look up the meaning of verbs in your dictionary, you will find some verbs marked v.i., and some verbs marked v.t. V.t. is the abbreviation for verb transitive. Whenever you find a verb marked v.t., you know that it is a transitive verb, a verb of action, one which requires an object to complete its meaning. V.i. is the abbreviation for verb intransitive. Some grammarians use the term intransitive to include both complete and copulative verbs. We have used the terms complete and incomplete because they are much simpler and clearer in describing the two general classes of verbs, but you will remember that when you find verbs marked v.i. in the dictionary that these include complete and copulative verbs.

101. Now notice these sentences:

- The earth is round.

- The earth is a sphere.

In these sentences the verb is does not express action, but connects or couples the complements round and sphere with the subject earth. Verbs used in this way are called copulative verbs, from the word copula, which means to complete or to connect. The words round and sphere are not the objects of the verb, for they do not describe the receiver of any action. They are the words which describe the state or condition expressed in the verb is, and are called the attribute complement of the verb.

You note that this complement may be either an adjective or a noun. In the sentence, The earth is round, the adjective, round, is used as the complement; in the sentence, The earth is a sphere, the noun, sphere, is used as the complement. So we have our definition of copulative verbs.

102. Verbs that express state or condition are called copulative verbs.

The word or words that complete the meaning of an incomplete verb expressing state or condition, are called the complement, or attribute complement.

There are only a few of these copulative verbs. All forms of the verb, be; like am, is, are, was and were, and the verb phrases like must be, can be, will be, shall be, have been, had been, etc.; and the verbs seem, appear, become, look, feel, taste, sound and smell, are the principal copulative verbs.

Exercise 3

Study carefully the following sentences. Note whether the complement of the copulative verb is an adjective or a noun. Draw one line under each adjective used as a complement and two lines under each noun used as a complement.

- The day is beautiful.

- I am weary and tired.

- The men were soldiers.

- The tasks seem endless.

- All men must be free.

- The workers have been slaves.

- The burden becomes heavier every day.

- The children feel happy and care-free.

- Evolution is the development of life.

- Grammar is the study of words and their use.

- Knowledge is freedom.

- The music sounds sweet on the midnight air.

- He looks well today.

- The dregs taste bitter.

- The incense smells sweet.

Exercise 4

Complete the following sentences by adding an object or a complement.

1. Perseverance in your study will bring.......

2. The great need of the working class is.......

3. We shall never acknowledge.......

4. By the sweat of no other's brow shalt thou eat.......

5. The Revolutionary fathers founded.......

6. The workers demand.......

7. Labor's only road to freedom is.......

8. Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness are.......

9. If you struggle, you will gain.......

10. An incomplete verb requires.......

11. The complement of a transitive verb is called.......

12. The complement of a copulative verb may be either......or.......

103. There are two classes of verbs, complete and incomplete.

A complete verb is one that requires no complement.

An incomplete verb is one that requires a complement to complete its meaning.

Incomplete verbs are of two kinds: 1. Those that express action; 2. Those that express state or condition.

Incomplete verbs that express action are called transitive verbs.

Incomplete verbs that express state or condition are called copulative verbs.

The complement or the word that denotes the receiver of the action expressed in a transitive verb is called the object.

The word or words that complete the meaning of a copulative verb are called the complement, or attribute complement.

The same verb may be complete or incomplete, according to the way in which it is used.

Exercise 5

In the following sentences draw a single line under the complete verbs and a double line under the incomplete verbs. Then determine whether the incomplete verbs are transitive or copulative verbs, and draw a line through the object or the complement.

1. Some plants are poisonous.

2. A rolling stone gathers no moss.

3. Perseverance brings success.

4. Delays are dangerous.

5. A man's actions show his character.

6. He looks well and feels stronger.

7. The snows come and the flowers fade.

8. Labor creates all wealth.

9. Labor must be free.

10. The boy writes well.

11. The man wrote a letter.

12. The skies are clear.

13. The hail destroyed the wheat.

14. No man is ever too old to learn.

15. Competition makes enemies.

16. Co-operation makes friends.

17. Competition breeds hatred.

18. Co-operation breeds good will.

19. Competition ensures war.

20. Co-operation ensures peace.

Exercise 6

In the following quotation all of the verbs are printed in italics. Determine whether they are complete or incomplete verbs. If incomplete, determine whether they are transitive or copulative verbs. Draw a line under the object of every transitive verb and two lines under the complement of every copulative verb. Remember that sometimes we have several words combined into a verb phrase and used as a single verb. Watch for the verb phrases in the following, as for example: must be, in the sentence, Labor must be free.

The history of man is simply the history of slavery. Slavery includes all other crimes. It degrades labor and corrupts leisure. With the idea that labor is the basis of progress goes the truth that labor must be free. The laborer must be a free man.

There is something wrong in a government where honesty wears a rag and rascality dons a robe; where the loving eat a crust while the infamous sit at banquets.

Talk about equal opportunity! Capitalism ties a balloon to the shoulders of the rich child; it ties a ball and chain to the feet of the poor child; and tells them that they have an equal opportunity!

Once the master hunted for the slaves, now the slave hunts for a master.

Exercise 7

Mark the verbs in the following poem. Often in poetry words are omitted which in strict grammatical construction should be expressed. As for example in the fourth line of this poem which are, is omitted before the word bought. In prose this would read, The pews which are bought by the profits, etc. So the word bought is a part of the verb phrase, are bought. In the last line of the third stanza there is another omission before the word planning. The meaning is, while they are planning slaughter. Planning is a part of the verb phrase are planning. And in the last line is is omitted before the word beloved. Is beloved is the verb phrase. Determine whether the verbs in this poem are complete, transitive or copulative, and mark the objects and the complements of the transitive and the copulative verbs.

WHO IS A CHRISTIAN?

Ella Wheeler Wilcox

"Who is a Christian in this Christian land

Of many churches and of lofty spires?

Not he who sits in soft, upholstered pews

Bought by the profits of unholy greed,

And looks devotion while he thinks of gain.

Not he who sends petitions from the lips

That lie to-morrow in the street and mart.

Not he who fattens on another's toil,

And flings his unearned riches to the poor

Or aids the heathen with a lessened wage,

And builds cathedrals with an increased rent.

Christ, with Thy great, sweet, simple creed of love,

How must Thou weary of earth's "Christian" clans,

Who preach salvation through Thy saving blood

While planning slaughter of their fellow men.

Who is a Christian? It is one whose life

Is built on love, on kindness and on faith;

Who holds his brother as his other self;

Who toils for justice, equity and peace,

And hides no aim or purpose in his heart

That will not chord with universal good.

Though he be a pagan, heretic or Jew

That man is Christian and beloved of Christ."

SPELLING

LESSON 5

We often have two vowels used in the same syllable as a single sound, as ou in round, oi in oil, etc.

A diphthong is a union of two vowels to represent a single sound different from that of either alone.

Sometimes we have two vowels used together in a combination which is really not a diphthong for they do not unite in a different sound. Only one of the vowels is used and the other is silent as ai in rain, oa in soap, etc.

The most common diphthongs are:

- ou as in sound.

- ow as in owl.

- oi as in oil.

- oy as in boy.

In the spelling lesson for this week mark the words in which the combination of vowels forms a diphthong. In some of the words the combination of vowels does not form a diphthong for only one of the vowels is sounded. Draw a line through the silent letter.

Monday

- Straight

- Aisle

- Search

- Breadth

- Defeat

Tuesday

- Exploit

- Ceiling

- Height

- People

- Feudal

Wednesday

- Brought

- Shoulder

- Group

- Compound

- Trouble

Thursday

- Royal

- Coarse

- Course

- Broad

- Flower

Friday

- Laughter

- Haunted

- Plaid

- Invoice

- Chair

Saturday

- Guide

- Build

- Grieve

- Sieve

- Renown

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 6

Dear Comrade:

We have this week another lesson in verbs. Do not be discouraged if you do not understand it all at once. Little by little, it will grow clearer and you will master this important word.

The verb may seem involved to you, but a little application will soon make it clear. It is the most important word in the language to master. It almost seems as though the verb were a living, thinking thing. It changes outward form to accommodate itself to its subject in the number form and person form change. If it is entertaining a subject in the singular it adopts one dress; if it is entertaining a plural subject, more than one, the verb wears a different dress.

So also if the subject is the first person, the person speaking, or the second person, the person spoken to, or the third person, the person spoken of, the verb accommodates itself to the subject. The verb is the most agreeable thing for it changes its form to agree with its subject! So watch your verb and see that it agrees.

Refer constantly to your list of irregular verbs given in this lesson for we so often make mistakes in the use of these verb forms.

Then, too, the verb kindly changes its form to accommodate itself to the time of the action—action in the present, in the past, in the future—action completed before the present time—before some time past—or before some future time—and action progressing and not yet completed in the present, in the past or in the future. Then it can also change to show whether its subject is acting or being acted upon. Isn't the verb a wonderfully accommodating member of the co-operative commonwealth of words?

And can you not see hidden under all this, a marvelous development in the intellectual needs of men from the day of the savage's signs and grunts to the day when we can express such shades of meaning? This tool of expression, language, has had a wonderful evolution side by side with the evolution of the other tools by which man expresses his creative genius; from the forked stick with which man scratched the soil to the great machine-driven plow of today; from the simple threshing flail to the monster threshing machine of modern times.

There is nothing so wonderful as man's ability to express himself. Add a little to your knowledge every day and the sum total will soon surprise you.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

INFLECTION—CHANGES IN FORM

104. You remember that nouns have certain changes in form to indicate changes in use. Verbs also have several changes in form to correspond with changes in their use or meaning. Notice the following sentences:

- I think.

- I thought.

- I work.

- I worked.

What is the difference in the meaning of I think and I thought? of I work and I worked? When we say, I think, or I work, we mean that the action is now, to-day, in the present; but when we say, I thought, or I worked, we mean that now is not the time of the action, but that the action was performed sometime in the past. So we have a change in the verb form to denote time. The simple form of the verb, like think or work, is used to denote present time. When we wish to express past time we do it by changing the form of the verb. Now note the following:

I, We, You, They,

The men

}

call

send

fall

bring

hide

He, She, It,

The man

}

calls

sends

falls

brings

hides

Now let us write this in another way.

Present Time

Singular

Plural

1st person—I call.

We call.

2nd person—You call.

You call.

3rd person

He

She

It

The man

}

calls.

They, or

The men

}

call.

105. You notice in this table we use the expressions first person, second person, and third person. I and we indicate the person or persons speaking and are called the first person. You indicates the person or persons spoken to and is called the second person. He, she, it, they, and the person or persons or things spoken of, are called the third person.

We use the word you when speaking to one or more than one now-a-days. It used to be that when speaking to a single person, people said thou, and in speaking to two or more they said you. But we today have dropped the old form thou, and use you for both singular and plural.

106. Now note, in the above table, that there is only one form change in the verb, and this is in the third person singular. We say I call, You call, We call, They, or The men call, but we say He, or the man calls, in speaking of one person or thing. So we change the form of the verb with any subject which denotes the third person and the singular number. This form is made by adding s to the simple form of the verb, therefore we may call it the s-form because it always ends in s.

Remember that this s-form is used to express present time with a third person, singular subject. BE CAREFUL NOT TO USE THIS FORM WITH ANY PLURAL SUBJECT. There is no other change in the verb form in expressing the present time in any verb, except in the verb be.

107. This little verb be is one of the most troublesome verbs in our language, and since it is used in forming verb phrases, it will be well to commit the following table to memory. Watch closely your use of this bothersome little word. Note that it has a change in form for the first person singular, as well as for the third person singular. All other verbs have just the one change, the s-form for the third person singular. The verb be has a form also to use with the first person singular, the pronoun I.

Present Time

Past Time

Singular

Singular

1. I am.

1. I was.

2. You are.

2. You were.

3. He is.

3. He was.

Plural

Plural

1. We are.

1. We were.

2. You are.

2. You were.

3. They are.

3. They were.

108. The present time form is the form which expresses present time. It is expressed by the simple form of the verb with the exception of the third person singular, which is expressed by the s-form.

PAST TIME

109. To express past time we change the form of the verb. Notice the following:

I

She

He

It

The man

}

called

sent

fell

brought

hid

We

You

They

The men

}

called

sent

fell

brought

hid

Notice that these various forms of the verb which express past time are all made by changes from the simple form, which expresses present time. You will also notice that these five verbs used in the above table all form their past time form in different ways. For example, call adds ed; send changes the final letter from d to t; fall changes the vowel in the middle of the word from a to e; bring changes both the vowel and the final letter from bring to brought; hide drops the final letter e.

110. Verbs whose past time forms are made by adding d or ed to the simple form are called regular verbs.

Verbs whose past time forms are made in some other way than by adding d or ed are called irregular verbs.

111. There are about two hundred of these irregular verbs which form their past time in the following ways:

1. By change in the vowel letter, as fall, fell; write, wrote; see, saw; sing, sang; come, came.

2. By dropping the final vowel; as hide, hid; slide, slid; bite, bit.

3. By dropping a vowel from the middle of the word; as bleed, bled; feed, fed; lead, led.

4. By changing the final letter or letters; as send, sent; lose, lost; spend, spent.

5. By changing the vowel and final letters; as bring, brought; seek, sought; catch, caught.

6. By changing the vowel sound and adding t or d; as sleep, slept; feel, felt; flee, fled.

There are some irregular forms which we must learn and be exceedingly careful in their use. Study the list in this lesson.

Exercise 1

Write the present and past time forms of the following verbs as the verb think is written in the table given below.

- think

- ride

- have

- give

- write

- ask

- make

- try

- speak

- run

- see

- do

Present Time

Past Time

Singular

Singular

1. I think

1. I thought

2. You think

2. You thought

3. He thinks

3. He thought

Plural

Plural

1. We think

1. We thought

2. You think

2. You thought

3. They think

3. They thought

112. Be very careful not to use the s-form except for the third person singular. Be especially careful in the use of different forms of the verb be. It is in the use of this verb that we so frequently make mistakes. Watch your own language and the conversation of your friends and note these mistakes and correct them in your own mind. These common blunders in the use of English mark us as careless or uneducated by everyone who hears us speak. We have fallen into bad habits oftentimes and make these mistakes when we know better, and only constant watchfulness for a time can overcome the habit. After a time we learn to speak correctly without effort, and then these mistakes made by others offend the ear like a false note in music.

Exercise 2

Cross out the wrong form in the following:

- They was—were not here.

- The clouds has—have gathered.

- People is—are indifferent.

- The train was—were on time.

- The men was—were armed.

- Our school building is—are inadequate.

- The workers earn—earns their wages.

- The voters elect—elects the President.

- They do—does as they please.

- We was—were there on time.

DOING DOUBLE WORK

113. We have found now three forms of the verb, the simple form, the s-form, and the past time form, and, in addition, the I-form, or the first person form of the verb be. There are no other real verb forms, but there are two other changes made in the form of the verb when it ceases to be used as the predicate, the asserting word of the sentence, and becomes, in part, another part of speech.

Notice in the following sentences:

- Making shoes is his work.

- He enjoys making shoes.

In each of these sentences the word making, from the verb make, is used as a noun. In the first, Making shoes is his work, making is used as the subject of the sentence. In the second, He enjoys making shoes, making is used as the object of the verb enjoys. But making is not like the ordinary noun, for it has an object making—what?—making shoes. Shoes is the object of the action expressed in making. A noun never takes an object; so while the word making is used as a noun, it is also partly a verb. It is a form of the verb used as a noun, but keeping in part its verb nature, partaking of the nature of two parts of speech at the same time.

Hence these forms of the verb are called participles. Participle means partaker.

The participle may also be used as an adjective. Notice the following:

- The crying child came toward us.

- The rescuing party arrived.

In these sentences crying and rescuing are formed from the verbs cry and rescue, and are used as adjectives to describe the noun child and the noun party. So a participle is a mixed part of speech. It is partially a verb, but is not a true verb. A true verb is always used as the predicate, the asserting word in the sentence and always has a subject. The participle never has a subject; it may have an object, but not a subject.

114. There are two forms of the participle. The active form or the present form as it is sometimes called, ends in ing, as, waiting, walking, saying. It expresses action, existence, or possession as going on at the time mentioned in the sentence.

115. The other form of the participle is the passive form or the past form of the participle. This ends in ed in the regular verbs, and has various forms in the irregular verbs. It is formed in regular verbs by adding d or ed to the simple form, hence has the same form as the past time form, as for example, present time form, call—past time form, called—past participle, called. You will find the past participle forms of irregular verbs in the list of irregular verbs given in this lesson, as for example—present time form, go—past time form, went—past participle, gone.

116. You will find as we study the verb phrases in later lessons that these participles are used in forming verb phrases. As for example:

- He is coming.

- They are trying.

- He has gone.

A participle is a word derived from a verb, partaking of the nature of a verb and also of an adjective or a noun.

LET US SUM UP

117. Verbs have five form changes.

Simple

S-Form

Past Time

Present Part.

Past Part.

call

calls

called

calling

called

go

goes

went

going

gone

Exercise 3

Write in columns like the above the five forms of the following verbs:

- do

- try

- give

- hope

- live

- rob

- have

- think

- sing

- get

- wave

- lose

- come

- make

Exercise 4

Study carefully the following quotation. You will find in it all five of the form changes of the verb—the present time form, the s-form, the past time form, the present participle and the past participle. In the verb phrases had been filled, has survived, has gone, has proved and be dismayed, you will find the past participle used in forming the verb phrase. We will study these verb phrases in later lessons.

In the verb phrases, was stumbling, was groping, is conquering, are carrying, the present participle is used in forming the verb phrases. Could reconcile is also a verb phrase. We will study these verb phrases also in later lessons.

The present participles, struggling, persevering and regaining are used as adjectives. Study them carefully and find the words which they describe. The present participles imagining, learning and suffering are used as nouns. Note their use.

The past participles rebuffed, self-reproached, discouraged and promised are used as adjectives. Find the words which they modify. There are several present time forms, several past time forms, and several s-forms. Find them and study carefully their usage.

OUT OF THE DARK

By Helen Keller

America's famous blind girl, who has come to see more than most people with normal eyes.

Step by step my investigation of blindness led me into the industrial world. And what a world it is. I faced unflinchingly a world of facts—a world of misery and degradation, of blindness, crookedness, and sin, a world struggling against the elements, against the unknown, against itself. How could I reconcile this world of fact with the bright world of my imagining? My darkness had been filled with the light of intelligence, and, behold, the outer day-lit world was stumbling, was groping in social blindness. At first, I was most unhappy, but deeper study restored my confidence. By learning the suffering and burdens of men, I became aware as never before of the life-power which has survived the forces of darkness—the power which, though never completely victorious, is continuously conquering. The very fact that we are still carrying on the contest against the hosts of annihilation proves that on the whole the battle has gone for humanity. The world's great heart has proved equal to the prodigious undertaking which God set it. Rebuffed, but always persevering; self-reproached, but ever regaining faith; undaunted, tenacious, the heart of man labors towards immeasurably distant goals. Discouraged not by difficulties without, or the anguish of ages within, the heart listens to a secret voice that whispers: "Be not dismayed; in the future lies the Promised Land."

List of Irregular Verbs

Here is a list of the principal irregular verbs—the present and past time forms and the past participle are called the principal parts of a verb.

(Those marked with an r have also the regular form.)

Present T.

Past T.

Past Part.

abide

abode

abode

arise

arose

arisen

awake

awoke, r

awaked

be or am

was

been

bear

bore

borne

beat

beat

beaten

begin

began

begun

bend

bent, r

bent, r

bereave

bereft, r

bereft, r

beseech

besought

besought

bet

bet

bet

bid

bid or bade

bid (den)

bind

bound

bound

bite

bit

bit (ten)

bleed

bled

bled

blow

blew

blown

break

broke

broken

breed

bred

bred

bring

brought

brought

build

built, r

built, r

burn

burnt, r

burnt, r

burst

burst

burst

buy

bought

bought

cast

cast

cast

catch

caught

caught

chide

chid

chid (den)

choose

chose

chosen

cling

clung

clung

clothe

clad, r

clad, r

come

came

come

cost

cost

cost

creep

crept

crept

cut

cut

cut

deal

dealt, r

dealt, r

dig

dug, r

dug, r

do

did

done

draw

drew

drawn

dream

dreamt, r

dreamt, r

drink

drank

drunk

drive

drove

driven

dwell

dwelt, r

dwelt, r

eat

ate

eaten

fall

fell

fallen

feed

fed

fed

feel

felt

felt

fight

fought

fought

find

found

found

flee

fled

fled

fling

flung

flung

fly

flew

flown

forget

forgot

forgotten

forgive

forgave

forgiven

forsake

forsook

forsaken

get

got

got (ten)

give

gave

given

go

went

gone

grind

ground

ground

grow

grew

grown

hang

hung, r

hung, r

have

had

had

hear

heard

heard

hew

hewed

hewn, r

hide

hid

hidden

hit

hit

hit

hold

held

held

hurt

hurt

hurt

keep

kept

kept

kneel

knelt, r

knelt, r

knit

knit, r

knit, r

know

knew

known

lay

laid

laid

lead

led

led

leave

left

left

lend

lent

lent

let

let

let

lie

lay

lain

light

lit, r

lit, r

lose

lost

lost

make

made

made

mean

meant

meant

meet

met

met

mistake

mistook

mistaken

mow

mowed

mown, r

pay

paid

paid

plead

pled, r

pled, r

put

put

put

quit

quit, r

quit, r

read

read

read

rend

rent

rent

rid

rid

rid

ride

rode

ridden

ring

rang

rung

rise

rose

risen

run

ran

run

saw

sawed

sawn, r

say

said

said

see

saw

seen

seek

sought

sought

sell

sold

sold

send

sent

sent

set

set

set

shake

shook

shaken

shape

shaped

shapen, r

shave

shaved

shaven, r

shear

sheared

shorn, r

shed

shed

shed

shine

shone, r

shone, r

shoe

shod

shod

shoot

shot

shot

show

showed

shown, r

shrink

shrank

shrunk (en)

shut

shut

shut

sing

sang

sung

sink

sank

sunk

sit

sat

sat

slay

slew

slain

sleep

slept

slept

slide

slid

slid (en)

sling

slung

slung

slink

slunk

slunk

slit

slit

slit

smite

smote

smitten

sow

sowed

sown, r

speak

spoke

spoken

speed

sped

sped

spend

spent

spent

spill

spilt, r

spilt, r

spin

spun

spun

spit

spit

spit

split

split

split

spoil

spoilt, r

spoilt, r

spread

spread

spread

spring

sprang

sprung

stand

stood

stood

stave

stove, r

stove, r

steal

stole

stolen

stick

stuck

stuck

sting

stung

stung

stink

stunk

stunk

strike

struck

struck

strike

struck

stricken

stride

strode

stridden

string

strung

strung

strive

strove

striven

strew

strewed

strewn, r

swear

sworn

sworn

sweat

sweat, r

sweat, r

sweep

swept

swept

swell

swelled

swollen, r

swim

swam

swum

swing

swung

swung

take

took

taken

teach

taught

taught

tear

tore

torn

tell

told

told

think

thought

thought

throw

threw

thrown

thrust

thrust

thrust

tread

trod

trod (den)

wake

woke, r

woke, r

wear

wore

worn

weave

wove

woven

wed

wed, r

wed, r

weep

wept

wept

wet

wet, r

wet, r

whet

whet, r

whet, r

win

won

won

wind

wound

wound

work

wrought, r

wrought, r

wring

wrung

wrung

write

wrote

written

SPELLING

LESSON 6

Every vowel or every vowel combination pronounced as one vowel sound indicates a syllable (excepting final e in such words as fate, late, rode, etc.) Take the word combination, for example. In this word we have four syllables, thus: Com-bi-na-tion.

A syllable is that part of a word which can be uttered distinctly by a single effort of the voice. Remember that each syllable must contain a vowel or a vowel combination like oi or ou, which is pronounced as one vowel. Sometimes the vowel alone makes the syllable as in a-lone, e-qual, etc. The final e in words like late, and fate is not sounded. It is silent, we say.

All words ending in silent e have the long vowel sound, with a very few exceptions. Words without the final e have the short vowel sound as for example: fate, fat; mate, mat; hide, hid; rode, rod.

In dividing words into syllables the consonant is written with the preceding vowel when that vowel is short. If the vowel is long the consonant is written with the next syllable, as for example, de-fine and def-i-ni-tion. In de-fine the e is long therefore f, the consonant following, is written with the next syllable, fine. In def-i-ni-tion the e has the short sound, therefore the f is written with the e in the syllable, def.

When there are two consonants following the vowel, divide between the consonants, as for example, in-ven-tion, foun-da-tion, etc. Never divide a digraph, that is, two consonants which are sounded together as one sound, as for example, moth-er, catch-er, te-leg-ra-pher, etc.

In writing words containing double consonants like dd, ll, ss, divide the word into syllables between the double consonants, as for example, per-mit-ted, ad-mis-sion, sad-dest, etc.

Monday

- Important

- Accommodate

- Person

- Correspond

- Action

Tuesday

- Difference

- Notice

- Indicate

- Remember

- Irregular

Wednesday

- Mistake

- Conversation

- Correctly

- President

- Ordinary

Thursday

- Participle

- Passive

- Various

- Phrase

- Quotation

Friday

- Imagine

- Confidence

- Humanity

- Faith

- Future

Saturday

- Whisper

- Thought

- Ability

- Knowledge

- Genius

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 7

Dear Comrade:

I wonder if you have ever thought as to how our language grew.

We get the words in our language from many sources. The English language today is a development of the early Anglo-Saxon. England was called originally Angle-land which was gradually shortened into England. So we have in our language what are called pure English or Anglo-Saxon words. These words form the bulk of our every day vocabulary, being simple, strong, forceful words. Then we have in our English many foreign words which we have adopted from other languages. There are many Latin and Greek words; these we use in our more elegant speech or writing.

There is an interesting bit written by Sir Walter Scott in his novel of early England, "Ivanhoe," which illustrates the manner in which words have come into our language and also the difference in speech which marks the working class and the exploiting class. As those who do the work of the world rid themselves of the parasites who have appropriated the produce of their labor, through the ages, they will demand that which belongs to them—the best—the best in language as in everything else.

"'... I advise thee to call off Fangs and leave the herd to their destiny, which, whether they meet with bands of traveling soldiers, or of outlaws, or of wandering pilgrims, can be little else than to be converted into Normans before morning, to thy no small ease and comfort.'

"'The swine turned into Normans to my comfort!' quoth Gurth. 'Expound that to me, Wamba, for my brain is too dull and my mind too vexed to read riddles.'

"'Why, how call you these grunting brutes running about on their four legs?' demanded Wamba.

"'Swine, fool, swine,' said the herd; 'every fool knows that.'

"'And swine is good Saxon,' said the jester; 'but how call you the sow when she is flayed, and drawn, and quartered, and hung by the heels like a traitor?'

"'Pork,' answered the swineherd.

"'I am glad every fool knows that too,' said Wamba; 'and pork, I think, is good Norman-French, and so when the brute lives and is in charge of a Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes a Norman and is called pork when she is carried to the castle-hall to feast among the nobles. What dost thou think of that, friend Gurth, ha?' ... "

So you see even in words the distinction is made between those who produce and those who possess.

But the day is at hand when those who work shall also enjoy. We have fought for religious and political freedom. Today we are waging the battle for industrial freedom. It is your struggle. Study—prepare yourself to do battle for your rights.

Yours for Freedom,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

FUTURE TIME

118. We have learned how to express present time and past time, by changes in the form of the verb. But we very often desire to make a statement in which we do not express either present or past time, thus we may say:

- We shall enjoy our rights some day.

- He will join us in the struggle.

We do not mean to say that we do enjoy our rights now, in the present, or that we did in the past, but that we shall enjoy our rights some time in the future. In the second sentence, will join expresses the same idea of future time. To indicate future time, we do not make a change in the verb form, but we use shall and will with the simple form of the verb.

119. We denote future time by use of a verb phrase made by placing shall or will before the simple form of the verb.

120. The rule of some grammarians is to use shall always in the first person, the person speaking, to denote future time, and will with the second person, the person spoken to, and with the third person, the person spoken of, to denote future time. But common usage does not always follow the rules of the grammarians, and, in the course of time, affects and changes these rules. So our common usage of today uses will in the first person to express future time, as well as shall.

This rule of grammarians marks a nicety of speech and conveys a distinction of meaning which it really seems worth while to retain. The idea of the grammarians is that when we use will with the first person and shall with the second or third person, we express a promise or determination. Thus if I say, I shall go, I simply mean that my going will be in the future. But if I say, I will go, I either mean that I am promising to go or that I am expressing my determination to go. So also if we use shall in the second and third persons. If we say, You will go or He will go, we are simply stating that the going will be in the future, but if we say, You shall go, or He shall go, we mean that we promise or are determined that you or he shall go.

To be technically correct this distinction should be observed. Shall in the first person, and will in the second and third express simple futurity. Will in the first person and shall in the second and third express promise or determination. But in every day conversation this distinction is not observed, and many of our best writers do not follow this rule.

Exercise 1

Mark the future time forms in the following sentences:

1. I shall speak of liberty.

2. I will never give up.

3. I shall write to him.

4. He shall not starve.

5. We shall expect you.

6. They shall suffer for this.

7. I shall go to New York.

8. He will call for me.

9. The hungry shall be fed.

10. You will soon see the reason.

11. You shall never want for a friend.

12. They shall some day see the truth.

13. We will not fight against our class.

14. We will stand together.

PERFECT TIME

121. Past, present and future, being the three divisions of time, one would naturally expect that when we had found how to express these three forms, we would be through, but if you stop to think, you will find that there are other verb phrases of which we have need.

When we wish to speak of action as completed at the present time, we do not say:

- I study my lessons every day, but, I have studied my lessons every day.

- Not, You work for him every day, but, You have worked for him every day.

- Not, He sees her frequently, but, He has seen her frequently.

Can you not readily see the difference in the meaning expressed in I work every day, and I have worked every day? In the first sentence you express a general truth, I work every day, a truth which has been true in the past, is true in the present, and the implication is that it will continue to be true in the future. But when you say, I have worked every day, you are saying nothing as to the future, but you are describing an action which is completed at the present time. This is called the present complete or present perfect time.

122. Perfect means complete, and present perfect describes an action perfected or completed at the present time. So it is possible for us to express a necessary shade of meaning by the present perfect time form.

123. The present perfect time form describes an action completed at the present time, and is formed by using the present time form of have and the past participle of the verb.

Present Perfect Time

Singular

Plural

1st. I have seen.

We have seen.

2d. You have seen.

You have seen.

3d. He has seen.

They have seen.

124. Review in the last lesson how to form the past participle. Remember that it is one of the principal parts of the verb. In regular verbs the past participle is the same form as the past time form. In irregular verbs the past participle is quite often different from the past time form, as for example: go, went, gone; do, did, done, etc.

Watch closely your irregular verbs and see that you always use the past participle with have or had; never use the past time form with have or had.

PAST PERFECT

125. When you desire to express an action complete at some definite past time, you do not say:

- We finished when they came, but, We had finished when they came.

- Not, They went when we arrived, but, They had gone when we arrived.

- Not, I worked six months when he began, but, I had worked six months when he began.

Can you see a difference in the meaning expressed in these sentences: I worked six months when he began; and I had worked six months when he began? This last sentence describes an action completed or perfected before some definite past time.

126. Past perfect time denotes an action perfected or completed at some definite past time. It is formed by using had and the past participle of the verb.

Remember always, with irregular verbs, to use the past participle. Never use the past time form with had.

Past Perfect Time

Singular

Plural

1st. I had seen.

We had seen.

2d. You had seen.

You had seen.

3d. He had seen.

They had seen.

Exercise 2

Correct the following sentences in which the past time form is used instead of the past participle. Look up the word in the list of irregular verbs and use the past participle instead of the past time form.

1. I have saw it often.

2. He had shook his fist.

3. She has sang for us.

4. The boat has sank here.

5. He has spoke the truth.

6. They had stole the books.

7. He has swore to the truth.

8. He had took the wrong road.

9. She has tore her dress.

10. He had threw the ball away.

11. The girl had wore the dress.

12. He had wrote the letters.

13. He had drank too much.

14. He had rode the horse.

15. The sun has rose.

16. He has bore his part.

17. They have began already.

18. The wind has blew all night.

19. It had broke when it fell.

20. He has chose the right.

21. You have did your duty.

22. He has ate his breakfast.

23. A heavy rain has fell.

24. They had gave it to me.

25. He has became rich.

26. It has grew rapidly.

27. He has knew it always.

28. He has mistook her for another.

FUTURE PERFECT TIME

127. We find also that we need a verb phrase to express time before some other future time, to describe an action that will be finished, perfected, or completed, before some other future action. Thus,

- I shall have gone before you arrive.

- You will have earned your money before you get it.

- I shall have worked thirty days when pay-day comes.

Can you not see a difference in saying, I shall work thirty days when pay-day comes, and I shall have worked thirty days when pay-day comes? The first sentence expresses simple future time, or what you will do when pay-day comes; the second describes an action which will be completed or perfected before pay-day comes. So there is quite a difference in the meaning of the future and the future perfect time.

128. The future perfect time form expresses or describes an action that will be perfected or completed before some other future time. It is formed by using shall have or will have with the past participle.

Be careful to use the past participle. Never use the past time form with shall have or will have.

Future Perfect Time

Singular

Plural

1st. I shall have seen.

We shall have seen.

2d. You will have seen.

You will have seen.

3d. He will have seen.

They will have seen.

LET US SUM UP

129. We have three time forms, present, past, future.

Present

Past

Future

I see

I saw

I shall see.

Each of these three time forms has a perfect form; that is, a time form which expresses an action as completed or perfected at the present time, or before some definite past or future time.

Present

Perfect Time

Past

Perfect Time

Future

Perfect Time

I have seen

I had seen

I shall have seen

130. It is wonderful how a knowledge of words and their uses enables us to express so many shades of meaning. It is like our development in observing colors. You know the savage always admires vivid reds and greens and blues. He does not yet see the beautiful shades and gradations of color. We enjoy the delicate pinks and blues and all the varying shades between the primal seven colors of the spectrum. And as we develop our artistic ability we see and enjoy all the beauties of color.

In music too, we observe the same development. The barbarian enjoys loud, crashing, discordant sounds which he calls music, but which to the educated ear are only harsh noises. The trained musician catches the delicate overtones and undertones and finds deepest ecstasy in sounds which the uneducated ear does not even catch. So as we study words and their uses, we find ourselves able to express shades of meaning, to paint our word pictures, not in gaudy, glaring chromo-tints, but in the wondrous blending of color that reveals the true artist.

Now get these modes of expressing time firmly fixed in your mind.

131. Let us get all we have learned about verbs into a summary and have it clearly in mind.

VERBS—SUMMARY

Two Classes

Complete—

Taking no complement.

Incomplete—

{

Verbs of action requiring object.

Copulative verbs requiring complement.

Inflection—Changes of Form

Simple Form

S-Form

Past Time

Present Part.

Past Part.

see

sees

saw

seeing

seen

TIME FORMS

Present

Singular

Plural

1. I see.

We see.

2. You see.

You see.

3. He sees.

They see.

Past

Singular

Plural

1. I saw.

We saw.

2. You saw.

You saw.

3. He saw.

They saw.

Future

Singular

Plural

1. I shall see.

We shall see.

2. You will see.

You will see.

3. He will see.

They will see.

Present Perfect

Singular

Plural

1. I have seen.

We have seen.

2. You have seen.

You have seen.

3. He has seen.

They have seen.

Past Perfect

Singular

Plural

1. I had seen.

We had seen.

2. You had seen.

You had seen.

3. He had seen.

They had seen.

Future Perfect

Singular

Plural

1. I shall have seen.

We shall have seen.

2. You will have seen.

You will have seen.

3. He will have seen.

They will have seen.

Exercise 3

Read carefully the following quotation. All of the verbs and verb phrases are written in italics. Study these carefully and decide whether they indicate present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect or future perfect time. The verb phrases—is seizing, is put, is praised, is defended, can see, must have, are owned, and are conducted, do not belong to any of these six forms. They are verb phrases used in ways which we shall study later. All of the other verbs or verb phrases belong to one of the six time forms which we have studied. Classify them.

The Working Class Must Strike the Blow

You remember Victor Hugo's story of the devil-fish; how the monster put forth one tentacle after another and coiled it around his victim; how the hero recalled that there was but one vulnerable spot in his brute enemy; how at the strategic moment he struck a blow at that spot, and the terrible demon of the deep shuddered, released his grasp and fell dead.

Capitalism is a monster which is seizing the body politic. One tentacle is put forth to grasp the major part of the earnings of the working class; another has seized the working-woman; another reaches forth to the child; another has fastened upon government and has made that the instrument of the powerful classes; still another has turned the pen of the journalist into a weapon by which the injustice of Capitalism is praised and is defended; and still another has seized the pulpit, has silenced those who profess to speak for God and man, or has turned their phrases into open apology and defense for the crimes of Capitalism!

But there is one vulnerable spot in Capitalism. If the working class of the world can see that spot and will strike, they shall be free.

The fundamental wrong, the basic injustice of the Capitalist System, is that the resources of land and machinery, to which all the people must have access, in order to live and labor, are owned by the few and are conducted by the few for their private profit.

This is the social tragedy, the monstrous wrong of our time.—J. Stitt Wilson.

Exercise 4

Select two verbs out of the following poem and write their six time forms, in the same manner as the time forms of the verb see are given in section 131.

A MAGIC WORD

There's a little word below, with letters three,

Which, if you only grasp its potency,

Will send you higher

Toward the goal where you aspire,

Which, without its precious aid, you'll never see—

NOW!

Success attends the man who views it right.

Its back and forward meanings differ quite;

For this is how it reads

To the man of ready deeds,

Who spells it backwards from achievement's height—

WON!

TENSE

The grammatical term for the time form of the verb is TENSE, which is derived from a Latin word meaning time. The present time-form of the verb is called the present tense; the past time-form, the past tense; the future time-form, the future tense; the present perfect time-form, the present perfect tense, etc.

Exercise 5

Write each of the following four sentences in the six time-forms, or tenses,—present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect and future perfect, as follows:

- Present—Labor creates all wealth.

- Past—Labor created all wealth.

- Future—Labor will create all wealth.

- Present Perfect—Labor has created all wealth.

- Past Perfect—Labor had created all wealth.

- Future Perfect—Labor will have created all wealth.

1. Hope stirs us to action.

2. Human progress is our business.

3. The majority demand justice.

4. The workers fight all the battles.

SPELLING

LESSON 7

The division of words into syllables is quite important as an aid to pronunciation. It is also a very important matter to understand in our written speech for it is often necessary to divide a word at the end of a line. If the word is not properly divided, it is much more difficult to read and understand. The hyphen is used to divide words into syllables when carrying a portion to the next line.

When you must divide a word at the end of a line divide it only between syllables. Never divide a word of one syllable, no matter how long it may be. If you cannot get all of it on the line, write it all on the next line. Do not divide a short word of two syllables if you can avoid it and never divide such a word when it leaves only one letter on the line or only one letter to be carried over to the next line, as for example: luck-y, a-loud, etc.

When two or more vowels are used together to make one sound they should never be separated by the hyphen, as for example, joy-ous, anx-ious, trail, dis-course, de-feat, boor-ish.

When two or more vowels placed together are not used to form one sound then these vowels may be divided, as for example, tri-al, co-or-di-nate, he-ro-ic.

Look up the words in this week's lesson in the dictionary carefully and divide into syllables. Notice specially the division of words into syllables where the word contains a diphthong and where it contains two vowels written together which are not diphthongs. Notice also the words which have a single vowel as the first or last syllable.

Monday

- Museum

- Creatures

- Peaceable

- Accruing

- Already

Tuesday

- Persuade

- Trivial

- Plague

- Alert

- Inquiry

Wednesday

- Piteous

- Patriot

- Poetry

- Evil

- Business

Thursday

- Obey

- Breathe

- Society

- Ether

- Sociable

Friday

- Idealism

- Pledge

- Ache

- Acre

- Pronunciation

Saturday

- Idle

- Idol

- Mutual

- Wealthy

- Neighbors

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 8

Dear Comrade:

You have often read the words organic and inorganic but did you ever stop to think of the meaning of these words? We say a body is organic—a rock is inorganic; one grows from within, the other is built from without. A tree is organic; it grows. A house is inorganic; it is built. The house was never a baby house, growing from a tiny house to a large one. But the tree was once a baby tree, a sapling, and grew branch by branch to its present height. So we have two classes of things—those which grow and those which are made.

Language belongs to the class of things which grows. It is organic. We have even used the same terms in speaking about language that we use in talking of a tree. We use the words ROOT, STEM and BRANCH to describe its growth.

Language, too, has its different terms of life like a tree, its youth, its maturity, its old age, its death.

So we have dead languages like Latin and Greek—languages which are no longer living,—no longer serving mankind. But these dead languages have left living children, languages that have descended from them.

The Italian language for example is the child, the descendant of the classical Latin. We have many words in our English language from these dead languages. About five-sevenths of the words in our English are from these classical languages. The remaining two-sevenths are from the Anglo-Saxon. We use the Anglo-Saxon words more frequently, however, in our every day speech.

And it is interesting to note that our best poetry—that which stirs our blood and touches our hearts—is written in the strong forceful Anglo-Saxon words.

These words we are studying have been through some interesting experiences as they have passed from race to race down to us and the history of life is mirrored in their changes. How much more interesting they seem when we know something of their sources, just as we are more interested in a man when we know something of his boyhood and youth and the experiences through which he has passed.

You may think that the study of verbs is rather difficult and involved, but it is more simple in English than in any other language. There are fewer changes in the verb form in order to express time and person. Do not rely on the memorizing of the rules. Rules never made one a fluent speaker. Write sentences in which the correct form is used. Read aloud from the best authors until the sound of the words is familiar and they come readily to the tongue. We have used for the exercises in these lessons excerpts from the best authors.

Study these exercises carefully and note the use of the different verbs especially, this week. Verbs, like all else, are yours to command. Command them.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

PROGRESSIVE VERB PHRASES

132. We have learned how to form the three principal time forms, present, past and future and the perfect or completed form of each of the three, present perfect, past perfect and future perfect. And still we have such a wonderful language that we can express other shades of meaning in time.

133. There is still another phase of action which we must have a verb phrase to express. Suppose you want to describe something you are now doing and are continuing to do, something not yet completed. To say, I do it now, is not satisfactory. Instead we say, I am doing it now.

You have by the verb phrase, am doing, described a progressive action, an action going on in the present. You may also want to describe what you were doing yesterday, an action that continued or progressed in the past. You would not say, I built the house yesterday but, I was building the house yesterday. Again you may want to describe an action which will be progressing or going on in the future. You do not say, I shall build the house next week but, I shall be building the house next week.

So we have progressive verb phrases.

134. The present progressive describes an action as continuing or progressing in the present.

It is formed by using the present time form of the verb be and the present participle.

You remember that the present participle is formed by adding ing to the simple form of the verb.

Present Progressive

Singular

Plural

1st. I am seeing.

We are seeing.

2d. You are seeing.

You are seeing.

3d. He is seeing.

They are seeing.

135. The past progressive time form describes an action which was continuing or progressing in the past. It is formed by using the past time form of the verb be and the present participle.

Past Progressive

Singular

Plural

1st. I was seeing.

We were seeing.

2d. You were seeing.

You were seeing.

3d. He was seeing.

They were seeing.

136. The future progressive describes an action which will be progressing or going on in the future. It is formed by using the future time form of the verb be and the present participle.

Future Progressive

Singular

Plural

1st. I shall be seeing.

We shall be seeing.

2d. You will be seeing.

You will be seeing.

3d. He will be seeing.

They will be seeing.

137. The perfect time forms also have a progressive form. There is a difference of meaning in the present perfect and its progressive form. You say for instance, I have tried all my life to be free. You mean you have tried until the present time and the inference is that now you have ceased to try. But, if you say, I have been trying all my life to be free, we understand that you have tried and are still trying.

138. So we have the present perfect progressive which describes an action which progressed in the past and continued up to the present time. It is formed by using the present perfect form of the verb be and the present participle.

Present Perfect Progressive

Singular

Plural

1st. I have been seeing.

We have been seeing.

2d. You have been seeing.

You have been seeing.

3d. He has been seeing.

They have been seeing.

139. The past perfect progressive describes an action which was continuing or progressing at some past time. It is formed by using the past perfect time form of the verb be and the present participle.

Past Perfect Progressive

Singular

Plural

1st. I had been seeing.

We had been seeing.

2d. You had been seeing.

You had been seeing.

3d. He had been seeing.

They had been seeing.

140. The future perfect progressive describes an action which will be progressing at some future time. It is formed by using the future perfect time form of the verb be and the present participle.

Future Perfect Progressive

Singular

Plural

1st. I shall have been seeing.

We shall have been seeing.

2d. You will have been seeing.

You will have been seeing.

3d. He will have been seeing.

They will have been seeing.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences mark all the progressive forms, and note whether they are present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect or future perfect.

1. The old order is passing.

2. Men will be struggling for freedom so long as slavery exists.

3. The class struggle has been growing more intense as wealth has accumulated.

4. The workers are realizing their power.

5. He had been talking for an hour when we arrived.

6. Next Monday I shall have been working for one year.

7. The workers will be paying interest on war debts for generations to come unless they repudiate.

8. While Marx was writing his books, he lived in abject poverty.

9. The Industrial Relations Commission has been investigating industrial conditions.

10. Ferrer was martyred because the Modern Schools were educating the people.

11. The nations of Europe had been preparing for war for many years.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE

141. Notice carefully the following sentences; select the subjects in these sentences which show who or what performed the action; select the subjects that show who or what receives the action. Do you notice any difference in the meaning of these sentences? Do you notice any difference in their form?

- The engine struck the man.

- The man was struck by the engine.

- The system enslaves men.

- Men are enslaved by the system.

- Leaders often betray the people.

- The people are often betrayed by leaders.

Let us look carefully at the first two sentences. You remember when we studied transitive verbs we found that every transitive verb had an object which was the receiver of the action expressed in the verb. Now you notice in this first sentence, The engine struck the man, we have the transitive verb struck. Engine is the subject of the verb and man is the object of the verb, the receiver of the action expressed by the verb struck.

Now in the sentence, The man was struck by the engine, we have the same thought expressed but in a different manner. The word man, which was the object of the verb struck in the first sentence, has now become the subject of the sentence, and we have changed our verb form from struck to was struck. In the first sentence of the subject, engine was the actor. In the second sentence, The man was struck by the engine, the subject of the sentence, man, is the receiver of the action expressed in the verb.

142. So we have thus changed the verb form from struck to was struck to indicate that the subject of the verb is the receiver of the action. Struck is called the active form of the verb because the subject of the verb is the actor. Was struck is called the passive form of the verb because the subject receives the action. Passive means receiving. In the passive form the subject is the receiver of the action expressed in the verb.

143. You remember that complete verbs have no object or complement, therefore it would follow that they cannot be put in the passive form for there is no object to become the receiver of the action. Take the complete verb, sleep, for example. We do not sleep anything, hence sleep has no passive form for there is no object which can be used as the subject, the receiver of the action.

Only transitive verbs can be put into the passive form. Remember that a transitive verb in the passive form is one that represents its subject as receiving the action.

The present, past, future and all the perfect time forms of transitive verbs can be changed from active to passive. The progressive time forms can be changed into the passive, but it makes an awkward construction and should be avoided as much as possible. Occasionally, however, we find it worth our while to use these forms, as for example:

- The book is being written by the man.

This is the passive form of the present progressive, The man is writing a book.

- The book was being written by the man.

This is the passive form of the past progressive, The man was writing the book.

144. The future progressive passive is awkward, and the present and past progressive forms are the only forms we find used in the passive. The best writers use them sparingly for we can usually say the same thing by using the active form of the verb and have a sentence which sounds much better.

Exercise 2

All the verbs in the following sentences are transitive verbs in the active form. Rewrite each sentence, putting the verb into the passive form and making the object of the active verb the subject of the passive verb; as, for example, the first sentence should be rewritten as follows:

War on Russia was declared by Germany on August 1, 1914.

1. Germany declared war on Russia, August 1, 1914.

2. Who will sign the Emancipation Proclamation of the Proletariat?

3. Marx and Engels wrote the Communist Manifesto.

4. Spain murdered Francisco Ferrer, October 13, 1909.

5. We celebrate the first of May as International Labor Day.

6. The people of Paris stormed the Bastille, July 14, 1789.

7. Wat Tyler was leading the English workers in rebellion against the King when the Mayor of London stabbed him in 1381.

8. The Inquisition burned Bruno at the stake for heresy in 1600.

9. The Paris Commune followed the German siege of Paris in 1871.

SUMMARY

145. Now let us take the verb see and name all the time forms which we can describe with the changes in the verb forms which we have learned to make and also with the verb phrases which we can construct with the help of the verbs, be, have, shall and will.

First, we want to express the present, what is happening now, and we want to put it in both the active and passive forms, so we say:

PRESENT TIME

Active

Passive

Singular

Singular

I see.

I am seen.

You see.

You are seen.

He sees.

He is seen.

Plural

Plural

We see.

We are seen.

You see.

You are seen.

They see.

They are seen.

Note that the only change in the verb form in the present ACTIVE is the s-form for the third person singular. In the present passive the only change is the special form of the verb be for the first and third persons, singular.

When we want to tell what occurred yesterday or some time in the past, stated in the active and passive form, we say:

PAST TIME

Active

Passive

Singular

Singular

I saw.

I was seen.

You saw.

You were seen.

He saw.

He was seen.

Plural

Plural

We saw.

We were seen.

You saw.

You were seen.

They saw.

They were seen.

We have one other division of time which we must express—the future. Primitive man doubtless lived principally in the present, but with the development of memory and the means of recording events by a written language, he was able to make the deeds and achievements of the past a vital part of his life. But not until the faculty of thinking developed was the mind able to project itself into the future and make tomorrow the hope of today. Future time expresses hope, desire, growth.

FUTURE TIME

Active

Passive

Singular

Singular

I shall see.

I shall be seen.

You will see.

You will be seen.

He will see.

He will be seen.

Plural

Plural

We shall see.

We shall be seen.

You will see.

You will be seen.

They will see.

They will be seen.

Then you remember we had to devise a way of describing an action perfected or completed at the present or at some time in the past or at some time in the future—so we have present perfect, past perfect and future perfect.

PRESENT PERFECT

Active

Passive

Singular

Singular

I have seen.

I have been seen.

You have seen.

You have been seen.

He has seen.

He has been seen.

Plural

Plural

We have seen.

We have been seen.

You have seen.

You have been seen.

They have seen.

They have been seen.

PAST PERFECT

Active

Passive

Singular

Singular

I had seen.

I had been seen.

You had seen.

You had been seen.

He had seen.

He had been seen.

Plural

Plural

We had seen.

We had been seen.

You had seen.

You had been seen.

They had seen.

They had been seen.

FUTURE PERFECT

Active

Passive

Singular

Singular

I shall have seen.

I shall have been seen.

You will have seen.

You will have been seen.

He will have seen.

He will have been seen.

Plural

Plural

We shall have seen.

We shall have been seen.

You will have seen.

You will have been seen.

They will have seen.

They will have been seen.

146. But these are not all the phases of time which we can express. We have progressive, continuous action. So each of these six time forms has a progressive form.

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

Active

Passive

Singular

Singular

I am seeing.

I am being seen.

You are seeing.

You are being seen.

He is seeing.

He is being seen.

Plural

Plural

We are seeing.

We are being seen.

You are seeing.

You are being seen.

They are seeing.

They are being seen.

PAST PROGRESSIVE

Active

Passive

Singular

Singular

I was seeing.

I was being seen.

You were seeing.

You were being seen.

He was seeing.

He was being seen.

Plural

Plural

We were seeing.

We were being seen.

You were seeing.

You were being seen.

They were seeing.

They were being seen.

Only the Present and Past Progressive forms have a passive form. The rest of the Progressive forms are expressed in the active forms only.

FUTURE PROGRESSIVE

Singular

Plural

I shall be seeing.

We shall be seeing.

You will be seeing.

You will be seeing.

He will be seeing.

They will be seeing.

PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

Singular

Plural

I have been seeing.

We have been seeing.

You have been seeing.

You have been seeing.

He has been seeing.

They have been seeing.

PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

Singular

Plural

I had been seeing.

We had been seeing.

You had been seeing.

You had been seeing.

He had been seeing.

They had been seeing.

FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

Singular

Plural

I shall have been seeing.

We shall have been seeing.

You will have been seeing.

You will have been seeing.

He will have been seeing.

They will have been seeing.

Exercise 3

Write the four following sentences in their active and passive forms, as the sentence, War sweeps the earth, is written.

1. Education gives power.

2. Knowledge frees men.

3. Labor unions help the workers.

4. The people seek justice.

Present

Actve

War sweeps the earth.

Passive

The earth is swept by war.

Past

Active

War swept the earth.

Passive

The earth was swept by war.

Future

Active

War shall sweep the earth.

Passive

The earth shall be swept by war.

Pres. Per.

Active

War has swept the earth.

Passive

The earth has been swept by war.

Past Per.

Active

War had swept the earth.

Passive

The earth had been swept by war.

Fut. Per.

Active

War shall have swept the earth.

Passive

The earth shall have been swept by war.

Exercise 4

Underscore all the verbs and verb phrases in the following quotation. Write all the time forms of the transitive verb, lose, as the time forms of the verb see are written in the foregoing table.

When we study the animal world and try to explain to ourselves that struggle for existence which is maintained by each living being against adverse circumstances and against its enemies, we realize that the more the principles of solidarity and equality are developed in an animal society, and have become habitual to it, the more chance it has of surviving and coming triumphantly out of the struggle against hardships and foes. The more thoroughly each member of the society feels his solidarity with each other member of the society, the more completely are developed in all of them those two qualities which are the main factors of all progress; courage, on the one hand, and, on the other, free individual initiative. And, on the contrary, the more any animal society, or little group of animals, loses this feeling of solidarity—which may chance as the result of exceptional scarcity or else of exceptional plenty—the more the two other factors of progress, courage and individual initiative, diminish; in the end they disappear, and the society falls into decay and sinks before its foes. Without mutual confidence no struggle is possible; there is no courage, no initiative, no solidarity—and no victory!—Kropotkin.

SPELLING

LESSON 8

In pronouncing words of more than one syllable we always lay a little greater stress upon one syllable of the word; that is, that syllable receives the emphasis of the voice so as to make it more prominent than the other syllables. This is called accent, and the syllable which receives the special stress is called the accented syllable.

Accent is the stress of the voice upon one syllable of the word.

You will notice when you look up the pronunciation of words in your dictionary that a little mark called the accent mark is placed after the accented syllable, as for example: di-vide'.

Many words differ in meaning according to which syllable receives the accent. Our spelling lesson for this week contains a number of these words.

These words, when accented on the first syllable, are nouns; when accented on the second syllable, they are verbs.

Monday

Con' tract

Con tract'

Pro' test

Pro test'

Rec' ord

Re cord'

Im' port

Im port'

De' tail

De tail'

Tuesday

Con' vert

Con vert'

Con' flict

Con flict'

Prog' ress

Pro gress'

Im' press

Im press'

Ref' use

Re fuse'

Wednesday

Con' test

Con test'

Con' duct

Con duct'

Proj' ect

Pro ject'

Des' ert

De sert'

Ex' tract

Ex tract'

Thursday

Con' trast

Con trast'

Con' sort

Con sort'

Reb' el

Re bel'

Con' script

Con script'

Pres' ent

Pre sent'

Friday

Com' pound

Com pound'

Re' tail

Re tail'

Com' press

Com press'

Im' print

Im print'

Com' bine

Com bine'

Saturday

Con' fine

Con fine'

Sus' pect

Sus pect'

Com' mune

Com mune'

Ex' port

Ex port'

In' crease

In crease'

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 9

Dear Comrade:

You have been studying several weeks now in this Plain English Course and we trust you are enjoying the unfolding of the powers of expression. We have been necessarily studying rules to some extent but you have seen how these grew out of the need for expression. We have been breaking the sentence up into its different parts. First we had the names of things and now we are studying the words used to tell what these things do and are—namely verbs. And as our life has grown complex and our powers of thinking diversified covering the whole range of time, past, present and future, we have had to invent many forms of the verb to express it all.

Now do not try to commit these facts concerning the verb to memory. You are not studying English in order to know rules. You are studying English that you may be able to say and write the things you think. So first of all, think, think! That is your inalienable right! Do not accept anything just by blind belief. Think it out for yourself. Study until you see the 'why' of it all. "Independent thinking has given us the present, and we will forever continue to make tomorrow better than today. The right to think is inalienable, or a man is a machine. Thought is life or a human soul is a thing."

And do not lack the courage of your own thoughts. You do not need to cringe or apologize to any man. "Our life is not an apology but a life." Dare to think and dare to express and live your thought.

Did you ever read Emerson's definition of genius? "To believe your own thought, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men,—that is genius." Then he says, "We dismiss without notice our own thoughts, because they are ours. Tomorrow a stranger will say with masterly good sense, precisely what we have thought and felt all along and we shall be forced to take with shame our own opinion from another."

Have you not experienced this? How often we hear some one express a truth and we say to ourselves, "That is just what I have long believed but I have never dared say so." We have been so taught all our lives to depend on some outside power and discredit the power within ourselves, that we pay no attention to the thoughts that are ours for who are we that we should dare to think and perchance disagree with those who have assumed authority over us! But that is precisely what we should dare to do—to think and to do our own thinking always. Who dares place anything before a man!

So think as you study these lessons and use these rules and formulas simply as means to an end, as tools to aid you in expressing these thoughts.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

PARTICIPLES

147. We have found that the verb has five forms, made by internal changes in the verb itself,—the present time form, the s-form, the past time form, the present participle and the past participle.

We have also found that we can express various time forms by verb phrases formed by using the helping verbs, shall, will, have and be with one of the verb forms. All of these forms are used as the asserting word in the sentence. So long as the verb or verb phrase forms the predicate—the word or words that assert something of the subject—it still remains a verb. But we have found that the participle forms of the verb may be used as other parts of speech while still retaining some of the qualities of the verb.

148. You remember a sentence which we used when we studied participles, Making shoes is his work. Here we have the present participle making, with its object shoes, used as the subject of the verb is. Now a noun never takes an object, so making in this sentence is partly a verb, partly a noun, and is called a participle, which means partaker.

We have studied and used two forms of participles, the present and the past participle. The present participle always ends in ing and expresses action or existence in the present, or at the time mentioned in the sentence. For example, being, bringing, working, seeing, loving, hating, etc.

The past participle we found to be one of the principal parts of the verb. It expresses action or existence which is past or completed, at the time mentioned in the sentence. It is formed by adding d or ed to the regular verbs and by a change in the form in irregular verbs. For example, regular verbs: learned from learn, defeated from defeat, watched from watch. Irregular verbs: taught from teach, seen from see, won from win.

We have found that these participles may be used either as nouns or as adjectives. As for example:

- The crying of the child annoyed the people.

- The crying child ran to its mother.

- The coming of the new day will bring peace.

- We await the coming day of peace.

PARTICIPLE PHRASES

149. The present and the past participles are each single words; but we may also have participle phrases; that is, two or more words used as a participle, as for example:

- His having joined the strikers caused him to lose his job.

- The man, having been discharged, left the mill.

In these sentences we have the participle phrases, having joined and having been discharged. Having joined is a participle phrase used as a noun, the subject of the verb caused. Having been discharged is a participle phrase used as an adjective to modify the noun man. Notice that having joined is an active participle describing the action performed by the man who is referred to by the pronoun his. Having been discharged is a passive participle expressing an action of which the subject of the sentence, man, is the receiver.

These are both perfect participles, expressing actions which are complete at the present time.

150. We have also progressive participles expressing action which is continuing or progressing. These progressive participles are also used in both the active and the passive forms. The progressive active participle is formed by using having been with the present participle, as having been working. The progressive passive participle is formed by using being with the past participle, as for example, being watched, being driven, being gone, etc. So we have six participles, three active and three passive.

Note the following table:

Active

Passive

Present.

Sending.

Past.

Sent.

Perfect.

Having sent.

Perfect.

Having been sent.

Progressive.

Having been sending.

Progressive.

Being sent.

These participle phrases may be used either as nouns or as adjectives.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences mark the participles and the participle phrases. Underscore those used as nouns with a single line; those used as adjectives with two lines.

1. He denies having been hired by the employer.

2. Our friends, having arrived, joined us at dinner.

3. The rain, falling incessantly, kept us from going.

4. Having often seen him passing, I judged he lived near.

5. The man, being discouraged and ill, was unable to do his work well.

6. Happiness shared is happiness doubled.

7. Having finished his work, he rests at last.

8. The army, beaten but not vanquished, waited for the morrow.

9. The men, having been unemployed for months, were desperate.

10. Being prepared will not save us from war.

11. "Rest is not quitting this busy career;

Rest is the fitting of self to its sphere.

It's loving and serving the highest and best;

It's onward, not swerving; and that is true rest."

Exercise 2

Write the six participle forms of the verbs see and teach, and use in sentences of your own construction.

INFINITIVES

151. We have found that the various forms of the participles may be used as other parts of speech. They partake of the nature of a verb and either of a noun or an adjective. Notice the following sentences:

- Traveling is pleasant.

- Eating is necessary.

Can you think of any other way in which you could express the same thought? Do you not sometimes say,

- To travel is pleasant.

- To eat is necessary.

We have expressed practically the same thought in these two sentences, which is expressed in the sentences above, where we used the participle. To travel and to eat are used as nouns, subjects of the verb is just as traveling and eating are used as nouns, the subjects of the verb is.

Here we have another form of the verb used as a noun. When we use the verb in this way, we are not speaking of the traveling or eating as belonging to or being done by any particular person, nor do we indicate whether one person or more than one is concerned in the action. It might be anyone doing the traveling or eating, and it might be one person or a thousand. We are making a general statement of everybody in the world, so we call this form the infinitive.

152. Infinite means unlimited, without limit as to persons or number. Almost every verb in the language may be used in this way, and since to is generally used before the infinitive, to is often called the sign of the infinitive. For example:

- To be, or not to be, that is the question.

- To have and to hold is the problem.

- He likes to travel.

You note in all of these infinitives to is used with the simple form of the verb.

153. To is generally omitted after verbs like help, hear, bid, feel, let, make, see and have, or words of similar meaning. For example:

- Help me (to) find it.

- He bade me (to) stay.

- Feel it (to) shake.

- Make him (to) come.

- Hear me (to) sing.

- Let us (to) go.

- See him (to) run.

- Have him (to) copy this.

154. To is also omitted after need and dare when not is used.

They need to work.

They need not work.

They dared to come.

They dared not come.

155. To is sometimes omitted after prepositions:

- He will do anything for his class, except (to) fight for it.

- He would do nothing but (to) go away.

156. We have a number of different forms of the infinitive, both active and passive. Note the following table:

Active

Passive

Present.

To love.

Present.

To be loved.

Perfect.

To have loved.

Perfect.

To have been loved.

Present Prog.

To be loving.

Perfect Prog.

To have been loving.

157. Notice that only the present and perfect infinitives have the passive form. The progressive infinitives cannot be used in the passive. Remember also that only incomplete verbs, those which require an object to receive the action, can have a passive form.

The verb loved, which we have used in the above table, has a passive form because it is an incomplete verb, for there must be that which is the object of our love.

158. The complete verbs,—verbs which require no object,—cannot have a passive form for there is no object to become the receiver of the action. Take for example the verb dwell. This is a complete verb which can have no passive form. You cannot dwell anything, therefore you cannot say to be dwelt or to have been dwelt.

So complete verbs have only the four active forms, as follows:

Active

Present.

To dwell.

Present Prog.

To be dwelling.

Perfect.

To have dwelt.

Perfect Prog.

To have been dwelling.

159. Infinitives, like participles, may be used either as nouns or adjectives. When used as nouns, they are used in the various ways in which nouns are used. The infinitive may be the subject of a sentence, thus:

- To hesitate now will be fatal.

- To be defeated is no crime.

160. The infinitive may be the object or complement of the verb. For example:

- He wanted to see you.

- His desire is to learn.

161. The infinitive may be used as the object of a preposition; as,

- He is about to go.

- They will do anything for the cause except to live for it.

162. The infinitive may be used as an adjective to modify a noun. For example:

- He showed me the way to go.

- We must have food to eat and clothes to wear.

- The question to be decided is before us.

- Claim your right to live.

163. The infinitive may also be used as an adverb to modify the meaning of a verb, adjective or adverb, thus:

- He was forced to go.

- They are slow to learn.

- The fruit was not ripe enough to eat.

Note that the infinitives in these sentences may all be changed into adverb phrases. As for example in the first sentence, He was forced to go, the infinitive to go, which modifies the verb forced, may be changed to the adverb phrase, into going, thus, He was forced into going. In the second sentence, They are slow to learn, the infinitive to learn may be changed into the adverb phrase in learning, thus, They are slow in learning. In the last sentence, The fruit is not ripe enough to eat, the infinitive to eat, which modifies the adverb enough, may be changed into the adverb phrase, for eating, as for example, The fruit was not ripe enough for eating.

164. The infinitive is quite a useful form of the verb, and we will find that we use it very frequently in expressing our ideas. While it is not the asserting word in the sentence, it retains the nature of a verb and may have both an object and an adverb modifier. As for example, in the sentence:

- I wish to learn my lesson quickly.

To learn is the infinitive, used as a noun, the object of the verb wish. The infinitive also has an object, to learn—what? My lesson is the object of the infinitive to learn. We also have an adverb modifier in the adverb quickly, which tells how I wish to learn my lesson. So the infinitive retains its verb nature, in that it may have an object and it may be modified by an adverb.

Exercise 3

Notice carefully the use of the infinitives in the following sentences. Underscore all infinitives.

1. To remain ignorant is to remain a slave.

2. Teach us to think and give us courage to act.

3. Children love to be praised, but hate to be censured.

4. To obey is the creed taught the working class by the masters.

5. To be exploited has always been the fate of the workers.

6. Ferrer wrote on his prison wall, "To love a woman passionately, to have an ideal which I can serve, to have the desire to fight until I win—what more can I wish or ask?"

7. The people wish the man to be punished for the crime.

8. Primitive man found plenty of wood to burn.

9. We have learned to use coal and oil.

10. The lecture to have been given this evening has been postponed.

11. They are eager to hear the news.

12. He has failed to come.

13. We felt the house shake on its foundation.

14. Have him find the book for me.

15. To be defeated is no crime; never to have dared is the real crime.

16. The rich will do anything for the poor except to get off their backs.

17. To have slept while others fought is your shame.

18. Claim your right to do, to dream and to dare.

Exercise 4

Write sentences containing the six infinitive forms of the verb obey.

DON'TS FOR INFINITIVES

165. Don't split your infinitives. Keep the to and the infinitive together as much as possible. Don't say, They intended to never come back. Say rather, They intended never to come back. Sometimes, however, the meaning can be more aptly expressed by placing the adverb modifier between the to and the infinitive, as for example:

- To almost succeed is not enough.

- It will be found to far exceed our expectations.

In these sentences the adverbs almost and far express our meaning more closely if they are placed between the to and the infinitive. Ordinarily, however, do not split your infinitives, but place the adverb modifier either before or after the infinitive.

166. Don't use to by itself without the rest of the infinitive. Don't say, Do as I tell you to. Say instead, Do as I tell you to do; or, Do as I tell you. Don't say, He deceived us once and he is likely to again. Say rather, He deceived us once and he is likely to deceive us again, or to do so again.

167. Don't use and for to. Don't say, Try and go if you can. Say instead, Try to go if you can.

Correct the following sentences:

- We ought to bravely fight for our rights.

- I will do all my employer tells me to.

- We shall try and get our lessons.

- I ought to at least help my comrades but I am afraid to.

Exercise 5

Study carefully the infinitives in the following quotation. Notice which are active and which are passive infinitives.

The twenty thousand men prematurely slain on a field of battle, mean, to the women of their race, twenty thousand human creatures to be borne within them for months, to be given birth to in anguish, to be fed from their breasts and to be reared with toil, if the members of the tribe and the strength of the nation are to be maintained. In nations continually at war, incessant and unbroken child-bearing is by war imposed on all women if the state is to survive; and whenever war occurs, if numbers are to be maintained, there must be an increased child-bearing and rearing. This throws upon woman, as woman, a war tax, compared with which all that the male expends in military preparations is comparatively light.

It is especially in the domain of war that we, the bearers of men's bodies, who supply its most valuable munition, who, not amid the clamor and ardor of battle, but singly, and alone, with a three-in-the-morning courage, shed our blood and face death that the battle-field might have its food, a food more precious to us than our heart's blood; it is we, especially, who, in the domain of war, have our word to say, a word no man can say for us. It is our intention to enter into the domain of war and to labor there till in the course of generations we have extinguished it.—Olive Schreiner.

Exercise 6

Mark the participles and infinitives.

Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold!

Bright and yellow, hard and cold,

Molten, graven, hammer'd and roll'd;

Heavy to get, and light to hold;

Hoarded, barter'd, bought, and sold,

Stolen, borrow'd, squander'd, doled:

Spurn'd by the young, but hugg'd by the old

To the very verge of the churchyard mould;

Price of many a crime untold:

Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold!

Good or bad a thousand-fold!

How widely its agencies vary—

To save—to ruin—to curse—to bless—

As even its minted coins express,

Now stamp'd with the image of Good Queen Bess,

And now of a bloody Mary.

—Thos. Hood.

SPELLING

LESSON 9

In our English lessons, we have been studying the division of words into parts of speech. We have been studying them as we use them in expressing our thoughts but we may study them in other ways also. We may study them as words alone.

Studied in this way we find that we have simple, compound and derivative words. For example, man, man-slaughter, manly. Man is a simple word. Man-slaughter is a compound word formed of twosimple words. Manly is a derivative word derived from man.

When a compound word is first formed, it is usually written with a hyphen; but after the word has been used awhile the hyphen is often dropped and the two parts are written together as a simple word.

A simple word is a single word which cannot be divided into other words without changing its meaning.

A compound word is composed of two or more simple words into which it may be divided, each retaining its own meaning.

A derivative word is one which is derived from a simple word by the addition of another syllable.

In next week's lesson we will take up the study of these derivatives.

Divide the compound words in this week's lesson into the simple words of which they are composed.

Monday

- Birthday

- Coal-tar

- Craftsman

- Foreman

- Gunpowder

Tuesday

- Handkerchief

- Headquarters

- Lawsuit

- Lockout

- Bookkeeper

Wednesday

- Motorman

- Newspaper

- Pasteboard

- Postage-stamp

- Postmaster

Thursday

- Salesman

- Second-hand

- Shirtwaist

- Sidewalk

- Staircase

Friday

- Trademark

- Time-table

- Typewriter

- Tableware

- Sewing-machine

Saturday

- Undergarment

- Underhand

- Water-mark

- Woodwork

- Workshop

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 10

Dear Comrade:

We have been studying this course in Plain English for some weeks now and I trust that you have been enjoying as well as benefiting by the study of our wonderful and expressive language. Did you ever stop to think what a wonderful step it was in evolution when man first began to use the spoken word? And yet it was a still more wonderful step in advance when he began to use the written word for our highest evolution, and development would have been impossible without the help of written speech. An illiterate man may be a good workman and prosperous so far as the material things of life and his immediate contact with his fellow men are concerned, but we have only to think for a moment of what this world would be if we had no written language, to understand what a mighty power it has been in evolution.

Suppose we had no way by which we could communicate with our friends at a distance. Suppose there were no written words by which we could set down the countless dealings between man and man. What a hopeless tangle this social life of ours would soon become! Suppose also that we had no knowledge of the past, no knowledge of the discoveries and inventions of past generations except that which could be handed down to us through oral speech. All our knowledge of history, of the deeds and development of the past, all the observations by which science has uncovered to us the mysteries of nature would be largely lost to us. It was the invention of writing alone which made possible man's growth from barbarism to civilization, and it is more true than we oftentimes realize, that it is "only a wall of books that separates the civilized man of to-day from the savage of yesterday." And yet I wonder if we have ever stopped to think how this art of writing developed. Knowledge of the alphabet and of the letters by which we form our words and hence are able to express our ideas, has become such a common-place thing to us that we have forgotten what a wonder it is and how it has slowly grown and developed through the centuries. Yet there are races to-day that have no written language such as we know and to whom our written language seems truly a miracle.

The story is told of an Indian who was sent from one colony to another with four loaves of bread accompanied by a letter stating their number. The Indian ate one of the loaves and of course, was found out. The next time when he was sent upon a similar errand he repeated the theft but he took the precaution to hide the letter under a stone while he was eating the bread so that it might not see him!

But it is only the things that we do not understand which we invest with mystery and as we study the story of the alphabet in this series of letters we find that it has been a natural development accomplished by the growing powers of man. In succeeding letters we will trace this most interesting story of the alphabet.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

HELPING VERBS

168. We have found that whenever a verb is used by itself in making an assertion it denotes either present or past time. When we use a verb phrase, it expresses some other time than the past or present. These verb phrases are formed by using shall, will, have, had, and the various forms of the verb be with some form of the principal verb. These verbs which help to form verb phrases are called helping, or auxiliary verbs. Auxiliary means helping.

We have used have and had with the past participle to form the present perfect and past perfect time forms. We have used shall and will with different forms of the verb to denote future time, and we have used different forms of the verb be in making the various other time forms. So shall, will, have, had and the various forms of the verb be are helping verbs, which we use to help us in making verb phrases.

169. But these are not all of the helping verbs. There are other helping verbs which we use in forming verb phrases to express different ideas. These are such verbs as should and would, may and might, can and could, must and ought, do and did.

Exercise 1

Fill the blank spaces in the following sentences with the appropriate forms of the helping verbs, shall, will, have, had and be.

1. When......the workers organize?

2. Education......help us win.

3. The world......had enough of war.

4. We......deceived by the masters.

5. The workers......organized into craft unions.

6. They......never ceased the struggle.

7. The state......founded on exploitation.

8. Mutual aid......been an important factor in evolution.

9. The truth......taught to the people.

10. The victory......gained by the proletariat.

11. The nations of Europe......preparing for war for years.

12. The International......recognized war for defense.

13. We......not made the class distinctions, but we......recognize them as long as they exist.

14. The evolution of animals and the evolution of plants......proceeded according to the same general laws.

15. We......never win while the majority remains ignorant.

16. The strikers......betrayed by their leaders.

SHOULD AND WOULD

170. Should and would are the past-time forms of shall and will. We use them to express action or existence dependent upon some condition, thus:

- I should go if I were well enough.

- He should join us if you asked him.

In these sentences should and would express action which is possible now or will be in the future, provided some other action takes place.

The same distinction which we found made in the use shall and will has been made with should and would; that is, that should used with the first person, expresses action dependent upon condition; but would, used with the first person, implies exercise of the will. This rule is not closely followed, though it expresses a nice distinction in the use of should and would. In ordinary usage we use either should or would with the first person without any distinction of meaning, as for example:

- I should struggle on even if it meant death.

- I would stand for my principles though I stood entirely alone.

We do not use should however, with the second and third persons to express an action or existence dependent upon some condition. Should used with the second and third person implies obligation. Would is used with the second or third person to express an action dependent upon some condition, as for example:

- He would not go, even if you insisted.

- They would come if you invited them.

- You would believe him if you could hear him.

- You would be surprised if I should tell you the reason.

171. Should and would in all of the sentences which we have quoted are used to express action or existence dependent upon some condition which is expressed in that part of the sentence introduced by such conjunctions as if and though.

The parts of the sentence introduced by these conjunctions express the condition upon which the other action is dependent. When we use should in sentences without this condition, it means practically the same as ought, and implies an obligation. We use should with the first and second and third persons when we use it with this meaning, as for example:

I should have gone yesterday. You should be with us in this fight. They should never fear defeat.

172. Ought could be used in all these sentences and express practically the same meaning. Should used in this way implies obligation.

Exercise 2

Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which governs the use of the helping verb in that sentence.

1. ...... The workers should organize if they desire to control production.

2. ...... The proletariat would destroy this system if they understood their power.

3. ...... Every worker would join his fellows if he could but realize the class struggle.

4. ...... We would all enjoy plenty if we produced for use instead of for profit.

5. ...... The ruling class would not give up their privileges even though they knew that their cupidity endangers society.

6. ...... The injury of one should be the injury of all.

7. ...... The workers' International should stand for the international solidarity of the workers.

8. ...... You should never fear the ridicule of little minds.

9. ...... You would never fear ridicule if you were conscious of your own power.

10. ...... No man should fear to think for himself.

11. ...... No man would fear to think for himself if the world were truly free.

12. ...... Compromise now would mean defeat.

MAY AND MIGHT

173. May used as a helping verb means present permission in regard to an action or possession, as:

- You may come with us.

- He may have the money.

174. It may also mean a possible action or possession. You may come with us, for example, might mean that some time in the future it is possible that you will come with us. He may have the money, might mean either He is given permission to have the money, or It is possible that he has it.

May, used with many verb forms, means it is possible. For example: He may be hungry, He may have starved. He may have been starving; that is, it is possible that he is hungry; that he has starved; that he was starving.

175. Might is the past form of may and expresses past permission to do or to be and also possibility in the past. For example: The officer said he might go. That is, he gave him permission to go. You might have helped your comrades; that is, you had the power to have helped.

Might is also used to express permission or the power to do in the present and future, on condition. For example:

- He might find work if he were trained.

- The workers might destroy this insane system if they would.

Exercise 3

Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which governs the use of the helping verbs may or might in that sentence.

1. ...... The solidarity of the workers might have averted this war.

2. ......"Of all sad words of tongue or pen,

The saddest are these—'it might have been.'"

3. ...... You might join us.

4. ...... The people struggle that they may live.

5. ...... Try; you might succeed.

6. ...... The day may come when this day's deeds shall be remembered.

7. ...... Victory might be ours if we dared to face the issue.

8. ......"Men may come and men may go;

But I go on forever."

9. ...... It seemed possible that we might win.

10. ...... May we ever be loyal and true!

11. ...... It appeared for a time that we might be involved in war.

12. ...... Let come what may, we will not yield.

CAN AND COULD

176. Can is the present-time form and could the past-time form, and both imply ability or power to do or to be.

You can go means You are able to go,—You have the power to go. You may go means You have permission to go. Can is often used when we should use may, when we mean to give permission. Habit plays a great part in our life and knowledge of the right way does not always suffice. It is only continued effort that will establish correct habits of speech. Good English would be easy of accomplishment if "to do were as easy as to know what it were good to do."

We are too often like the mother in the story. "Can I have a piece of pie?" asked the child. "May I?" the mother corrected. Then the child asked, "May I have a piece of pie?" and the mother answered, "Yes, you can." Knowledge said, may; habit said can, and the ready tongue obeyed the force of habit.

Say the correct word over and over aloud until it sounds right to your ear and flows readily to your tongue.

177. Could is sometimes used in the present sense to denote power to do, conditioned upon willingness, as:

- He could if he would.

Exercise 4

Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which governs the use of the helping verbs can or could in that sentence.

1. ...... I can say love when others say hate;

I can say every man when others say one man;

What can I do? I can give myself to life,

When other men refuse themselves to life.

2. ...... No one can be free till all are free.

3. ...... They could win their freedom if they would prepare themselves to be free.

4. ...... What can I do, being alone?

5. ...... If all men could catch the vision of freedom, wars would cease.

6. ...... Could you find a better way to spend your time than in study?

7. ...... Men would rise in revolt if they could know the facts.

MUST AND OUGHT

178. Must and ought imply obligation. Must conveys the idea of being obliged to do an action from necessity or compulsion, as,

- You must have known it.

- He must go.

Ought was originally the past time form of owe, hence means to be indebted to, to owe. It conveys the idea of a moral obligation, as,

- You ought to help the cause.

- You ought to understand.

179. Ought is always used with the infinitive, and the same form is used to express both the present and the past time. The difference in time is expressed by a change in the infinitive instead of a change in the form of the helping verb. With may and might and can and could, present and past time are expressed by a change in the form of the helping verb. With the helping verb ought, the difference in time is expressed in the infinitive. For example:

- He ought to pay us our wages.

This means, He owes it to us to pay us our wages now.

- He ought to have paid us our wages.

This means, He owed it to us to pay us our wages some time in the past.

180. The present infinitive is used with the helping verb ought to express present time and the perfect infinitive is used with ought to express past time.

Exercise 5

Study carefully the following sentences. Write in the blank space preceding each sentence the number of the paragraph in the lesson which governs the use of the helping verb must or ought in that sentence.

1. ...... Service must be the key note of the future.

2. ...... Competition must give place to co-operation.

3. ...... Ought we to fear, who know the truth?

4. ...... Government ought to be the administration of things.

5. ...... No man ought to have the power of life and death over any other human being.

6. ...... It may cost much but humanity must be set free at any cost.

7. ...... What ought to be the attitude of the workers toward war?

8. ...... "For man must work and woman must weep,

For there is little to do and many to keep."

9. ...... The day must come when we can live the dream.

DO AND DID

181. Do and did are used as helping verbs to give emphasis—to form emphatic verb phrases. Do is the present time form and did the past time form, as for example:

- I do wish you would come.

- I did hope he would win.

182. When we use the negative not we use the helping verbs do and did to form our verb phrases. For example, we do not say:

- I obey not.

- I walked not.

- He comes not.

- They arrived not.

But in expressing the present and past time forms with the negative not, we say instead:

- I do not obey.

- I did not walk.

- He does not come.

- They did not arrive.

183. We also use do and did with the present and past time forms of the verb in writing interrogative sentences. For example, we do not say:

- Comes he with them?

- Studied you yesterday?

- Found they the book?

- Think you it is true?

But we say instead:

- Does he come with them?

- Did you study yesterday?

- Did they find the book?

- Do you think it is true?

Exercise 6

Write in the blank space before each sentence the number of the paragraph which governs the use of the helping verb do or did in that sentence.

1. ...... Slaves do not think; they obey.

2. ...... Men do not obey; they think.

3. ...... Do you know that two per cent of the people own sixty per cent of the wealth?

4. ...... The children of the masses do not have the opportunity to attend school.

5. ...... Did not every nation claim a war for defense?

6. ......"We did not dare to breathe a prayer,

Or give our anguish scope."

7. ...... We do desire the freedom of the people.

8. ...... We did hope that war might be averted.

Let us sum up the auxiliary or helping verbs.

184. Helping verbs are used to express:

- The different time forms—shall, will, have, had, be.

- Power to do or to be—can, could, might.

- Permission—may and might.

- Possibility—may and might.

- Obligation—must, ought and should.

- Necessity—must.

- Condition—would.

Mark the helping verbs in the following exercise:

Exercise 7

- The earth shall rise on new foundations.

- We have been naught, we shall be all.

- No more tradition's chains shall bind us.

- Oh! Liberty! Can man resign thee?

- Can dungeon's bolts and bars confine thee?

- Capital could never have existed if labor had not first existed.

- What can I do? I can talk out when others are silent. I can say man when others say money.

- Do you hear the children weeping, O my brothers?

- Political freedom can exist only where there is industrial freedom. Political democracy can exist only where there is industrial democracy.

- Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow.

- If there is anything that cannot bear free thought, let it crack.

- No doctrine, however established, should be protected from discussion.

- Society can overlook murder, adultery or swindling; it never forgives the preaching of a new gospel.

- The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants.

- Every man is a consumer and ought to be a producer.

- No picture of life can have any variety which does not admit the odious facts.

- I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me death.

Exercise 8

Note the use of the helping verbs in the following quotation. Could you use might or must or ought anywhere and strengthen the emphasis?

"I have looked at this claim by the light of history and my own confidence, and it seems to me, so looked at, to be a most just claim, and that resistance to it means nothing short of a denial of the whole of civilization.

This then is the claim:

It is right and necessary that all men should have work to do which shall be worth doing and be of itself pleasant to do; and which should be done under such conditions as would make it neither over-wearisome nor over-anxious.

Turn that claim about as I may, think of it as long as I can, I cannot find that it is an exorbitant claim; yet if society would or could admit it, the face of the earth would be changed; discontent and strife and dishonesty would be ended. To feel that we were doing work useful to others and pleasant to ourselves, and that such work and its due reward could not fail us! What serious harm could happen to us then? And the price to be paid for so making the world happy, must be revolution."—William Morris.

SPELLING

LESSON 10

Simple words are sometimes spoken of as root words. Root means that from which something grows. We know our language is a living, growing thing and these root words are the roots where the growth begins. One way in which this growth is accomplished and new words added to our language is by placing syllables before or after the root word—the simple word—as, for example: unmanly.

In this we have a syllable placed before and a syllable placed after the root word man. The syllable placed before the root word is called the prefix from the Latin pre meaning before and the Latin word to place. Therefore, prefix means literally to place before.

A prefix consists of one or more syllables placed before a word to qualify its meaning.

The syllable placed after the root word, or simple word, is called the suffix, from the Latin sub meaning after and the Latin word to place. Subfix the word should be literally, but for the sake of the sound—the euphony, the good sound—we say suffix.

A suffix consists of one or more syllables placed after a word to qualify its meaning.

The words made by adding prefixes and suffixes are called derivative words.

You remember we used a suffix in forming participles. The present participle is formed by adding the suffix ing to the simple form of the verb. The past participle is formed by adding the suffix ed to the simple form of the verb.

The words in the spelling lesson for this week are derivative words formed by adding a prefix or suffix, or both, to the simple word. Draw a line through the prefix and the suffix and leave the simple or root word.

Monday

- Wonderful

- Prosperous

- Disloyalty

- Uncovered

- Government

Tuesday

- Memorize

- Unreality

- Co-operation

- Dependent

- Truly

Wednesday

- Beautify

- Countless

- Uncomfortable

- Dishonesty

- Producer

Thursday

- Existence

- Untruthfulness

- Discontentment

- Victory

- Removable

Friday

- Impurity

- Unwillingness

- Indebted

- Overwearisome

- Enjoyable

Saturday

- Obligation

- Hopeless

- Endanger

- Precaution

- Denial

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 11

Dear Comrade:

As we begin the study of the story of the alphabet and the evolution of written speech, we discover that primitive man imagined the art of writing to have had divine origin, to have been handed down from the powers above.

It is natural for us to personify and envelop in mystery the things that we do not understand. So these primitive people have attributed the discovery of the art of writing to the gods and have looked upon the parchment containing the written word which they cannot understand, as possessing magical power; but as we come to learn the origin and causes of things, they are divested of their mystery and become no longer gods and enslavers of men. We understand the laws that govern their action and they become our servants. Take lightning for example. Primitive people personified the lightning or called it the thunder bolts of Jove or attributed it to an act of divine providence. We have learned the laws that govern the action of electricity and so this mighty giant is no longer a god to whom we bow in submission, and who slays us at his whim. He has become our most faithful servant who travels along the wires at our behest and obeys our every bidding. So in the early stages, the art of writing belonged only to the favored few and was made the means of enslavement of the common people instead of the means of liberation.

Knowledge has always been power and the ruling classes of the world, desiring power over the people, have striven to keep knowledge within their own circle; so the art of writing was known only to the few. The few books in circulation were laboriously written by hand and circulated, largely among the clergy, who used it as priests have ever used their power—from medicine man to Pope,—for the enslavement of the people and the protection of the privileges of a few. This is aptly illustrated in the law which was known as "the benefit of clergy" which was not entirely repealed until the year 1827. Under this statute, exemption from trial for criminal offenses was given to the clergy and also to any man who could read. If a person were sentenced to death for some criminal offense, the bishop of that community might claim him as a clerk and if, when given a Latin book, he could read a verse or two, the court would declare "he reads like a clerk" and the offender was only burned in the hand and then set free.

The invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century which made possible the diffusion of knowledge among the people, was the beginning of the emancipation of the workers of the world. But while we realize, perhaps, what this art of writing means to us and by the knowledge of its growth and development no longer ascribe it to divine origin or consider it a blessing designed by a supreme being for a favored few, still most of us know very little of the interesting evolution which made possible the alphabet which is the basis of our written and spoken language of to-day. When we realize how through all these long centuries man has been struggling, striving, evolving, developing, reaching out toward fuller, freer and richer life, it gives us courage in our struggle and makes us see ourselves, not as individuals alone, but as links in a mighty chain clasping hands with that primitive man of the past, from whom we have inherited the power we now possess, and reaching forth also to clasp the hands of those who shall come and handing on to them the things for which we have struggled and added to the inheritance of the past.

Next week we will have the story of man's first beginning in the art of writing.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

THE VERB "BE"

185. The verb is perhaps the most difficult part of speech to master because it has more form changes than any other part of speech.

In this lesson we are going to emphasize the most important things to remember in the study of the verb and also call attention to the most common mistakes.

186. First, master that little verb be in all its forms. The only way to do this is to commit to memory these forms. Say them over and over until any other form does not sound right.

Present

Past

Future

Singular

Singular

Singular

1. I am.

I was.

I shall be.

2. You are.

You were.

You will be.

3. He is.

He was.

He will be.

Plural

Plural

Plural

1. We are.

We were.

We shall be.

2. You are.

You were.

You will be.

3. They are.

They were.

They will be.

Pres. Perf.

Past Perf.

Fut. Perf.

Have been.

Had been.

Shall have been.

187. Do not use aint for is not or am not. Do not say, He aint here, or I aint going. Say, He isn't here; I am not going.

A FREQUENT MISTAKE

188. Perhaps one of the most frequent mistakes is the confusion in the use of the past time form and the past participle. Remember that the past time form is never used except in expressing past time; never use it in forming a verb phrase. Take the verb do, for example—say, He did the work, never, He done the work; but we should say, He has done the work, never, He has did the work. Say and seen are confused in the same manner. Watch this carefully.

Exercise 1

Underline the correct word in the following:

1. Who did—done it?

2. He sung—sang well.

3. He sunk—sank before we could reach him.

4. She written—wrote him a letter.

5. He taken—took the book.

6. They swum—swam the river.

7. I saw—seen him do it.

8. They drank—drunk too much.

9. He soon began—begun to fail.

10. The lad ran—run home.

11. They come—came yesterday.

WITH HELPING VERBS

189. Never use the past time form with the helping verbs has, had, was and were. Always use the past participle. Watch this carefully. For example, never say, He has went. Went is the past time form. Say, He has gone.

Exercise 2

Underscore the correct word in the following sentences:

1. He had tore—torn the book.

2. Have you ever sang—sung this tune?

3. They have showed—shown us how to win.

4. She has went—gone away.

5. The trees were shook—shaken by the wind.

6. He was chose—chosen for leader.

7. He has rose—risen from the ranks.

8. It was wrote—written by him.

9. He has took—taken the prize.

10. He was gave—given the money.

11. I have forgot—forgotten the rule.

12. The river was froze—frozen over.

13. The machine was broke—broken.

14. It was wore—worn out.

15. The meal was ate—eaten in silence.

PAST TIME FORMS

190. Watch your speech to see if you use an incorrect verb form for the past time form. Study the table of irregular verbs and refer to it frequently. We often make the mistake of forming the past time form by adding ed when properly it is formed irregularly. For example: we often say drawed for drew, throwed for threw, etc.

Exercise 3

Draw a line under the correct form in the following:

1. He grew—growed rapidly.

2. He knew—knowed better.

3. He catched—caught the ball.

4. He drew—drawed the water.

5. They threw—throwed him over.

6. I drinked—drank the water.

7. I climbed—clumb the tree.

8. I seed—saw him do it.

9. She teached—taught school.

VERBS OF SIMILAR FORM

191. Do not use one verb for another of similar form but different meaning. The following are the most common of these:

Lay (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to place or to put; as, to lay the book down. Principal parts: Present, lay; Past, laid; Past participle, laid.

Lie (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to recline, to rest; as, to lie in bed. Principal parts: Present, lie; Past, lay; Past participle, lain.

Set (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to place or to put; as, to set the table. Principal parts: Present, set; Past, set; Past participle, set.

Sit (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to rest, as, to sit in a chair. Principal parts: Present, sit; Past, sat; Past participle, sat.

Raise (incomplete verb, requires an object) meaning to cause to rise, to lift up. Principal parts: Present, raise; Past, raised; Past participle, raised.

Rise (complete verb, takes no object) meaning to get up, to ascend. Principal parts: Present, rise; Past, rose; Past participle, risen.

192. NOTE—These three verbs need an object to complete their meaning:

Present

Past

Past Participle

set

set

set

lay

laid

laid

raise

raised

raised

193. NOTE—These three verbs need no object:

Present

Past

Past Participle

sit

sat

sat

lie

lay

lain

rise

rose

risen

Exercise 4

Fill in the following blanks with the correct form of the verbs sit, set, lay, lie, raise and rise:

1. I......it on the table and there it.......

2. They......the battle ship, Maine.

3. Where did you......it?

4. A mile of pipe has been.......

5. The miners......a large strike fund.

6. She......down to sleep.

7. The body......in state three days.

8. The farmers of the U. S.......an enormous wheat crop.

9. The city......on the right bank.

10. We have......the corner stone.

11. When wages are......, prices are......too.

12. He......in bed all morning.

13. ......down Fido.

14. The sun......at six this morning.

15. She has been......there all day.

16. The ship......to during the storm.

17. They have been......new tracks.

18. The hen is......on the eggs.

19. Somebody said, "Early to bed and early to......, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise."

20. He......motionless for an hour.

21. He......out the trees in rows.

22. He will......in his position.

23. The court will......in May.

24. Where did he......?

25. She......the table while he......there.

26. He......the clock for six o'clock.

27. The water has......two feet since the rain.

28. He......the book down and......on it.

29. The hen has been......a week.

30. ......it on the table.

31. He......in the shade and watched her......the plants.

COMMON ERRORS

194. Remember that in the present time form the third person singular takes the s-form, but the s-form is never used except with the third person singular. We often make the mistake of using the s-form with a plural subject. Notice carefully the following sentences, and correct the errors. All of the sentences are wrong.

1. The days is getting shorter.

2. The men has struck.

3. The trains was late.

4. These papers is written for you.

5. You was disappointed, wasn't you?

6. There is several coming.

7. The nights was dark and cloudy.

8. The clouds has gathered.

9. They was anxious to come.

195. When two subjects are connected by and, the s-form of the verb must not be used, unless both subjects refer to one person; as:

- The president and the secretary (two persons) were late.

- The president and secretary (one person) was elected.

196. But when the two subjects are connected by or or nor then use the s-form of the verb; as:

- Neither Germany nor Russia admits a war of offense.

- Either the House or the Senate rejects the bill.

197. Never use the infinitive sign to by itself; as:

- I have not written and do not expect to.

- He has not gone nor does he intend to.

198. Never use don't for doesn't. The use of don't for doesn't is a very common mistake. Don't is a contraction of do not and doesn't of does not. When you are in doubt as to which to use, think or speak the two words in full and see if the verb agrees with the subject. Do not is used with a plural subject, and does not with a singular subject. For example: He don't believe me. This sentence in full would be, He do not believe me, which is incorrect. He does not (doesn't) believe me is correct. Or, They doesn't believe me. This sentence in full would read, They does not believe me, which is incorrect. They do not (don't) believe me is correct.

199. Do not use has got, or have got for must. For example, do not say, We have got to go. Say, We must go. Not, He has got to do what I say; but, He must do as I say.

200. Do not say had ought. For example: You had ought to know better. Omit the had; it is unnecessary and incorrect. Say, You ought to know better.

201. Do not say says I or thinks I.

- Says I, "Will you go?"

- Says he, "That's what will happen."

- Thinks I to myself, "I'll show you."

These are incorrect. Say instead:

- I said, "Will you go?"

- He said, "That's what will happen."

- I thought, "I'll show you."

Exercise 5

Mark all the verbs in the following quotations and note carefully their use.

- 1. Speak properly and in as few words as you can but always plainly; for the end of speech is not ostentation but to be understood.—Penn                                                          .

- 2. "Freedom's battle, once begun,

Bequeathed from bleeding sire to son,

Though baffled oft, is ever won."

Note the use of may and can in this quotation:

- 3. Knowledge cannot be stolen from us. It cannot be bought or sold. We may be poor, and the sheriff may come and sell our furniture, or drive away our cow, or take our pet lamb and leave us homeless and penniless; but he cannot lay the law's hand upon the jewelry of our minds.—E. Burritt.

Note the use of shall and will and would and should in the following. Richard Grant White says: "I do not know in English literature another passage in which the distinction between shall and will and would and should is at once so elegantly, so variously, so precisely, and so compactly illustrated."

- 4. "How long I shall love him I can no more tell,

Than, had I a fever, when I should be well.

My passion shall kill me before I will show it,

And yet I would give all the world he did know it;

But oh how I sigh, when I think, should he woo me,

I cannot refuse what I know would undo me."

- 5. I want it said of me by those who know me best that I always plucked a thistle and planted a flower where I thought a flower would grow.—Abraham Lincoln.

Exercise 6

Note the nouns as well as the verbs in the following quotation. Note also the use of infinitives and participles. Mark every verb and use it in a sentence of your own.

Faith and Truth

You say "Believe;" I say "Trust."

Between those two words is a great gulf fixed.

The idea that there can be a moral obligation to believe external facts is unworthy of a freeman, but to trust is as much the true nature of man as it is that of a babe to draw in its mother's milk.

You say "Creed;" I say "Faith."

A creed at best is but a sorry caricature of a faith.

Faith is the proper atmosphere of man, trust is his native buoyancy, and his only obligation is to follow the highest law of his being.

You have one supreme duty above all creeds and conventions—namely, to think honestly, and say what you think.

Have you doubts about your creed? say so; only thus has the true faith ever advanced.

It is not God, but the devil, who whispers: "Think at your peril!"

Do you see flaws in the ancient structure of respectability and law and order? Say so; only thus has the condition of man ever improved.

Have courage to be the heretic and traitor that you are by nature, and do not worry about the consequences.

Be a creator, as you were born to be, and spurn beyond all infamies the wretched role of a repeater and apologist.

The world lives and grows by heresy and treason.

It dies by conformity to error and loyalty to wrong.

Ernest Crosby.

Exercise 7

In the following paragraph, the predicates are printed in italics, and the participles and infinitives in italic capitals. Study carefully.

If it were taught to every child, and in every school and college, that it is morally wrong for anyone TO LIVE upon the COMBINED labor of his fellowmen without CONTRIBUTING an approximately equal amount of useful labor, whether physical or mental, in return, all kinds of GAMBLING, as well as many other kinds of useless occupations, would be seen TO BE of the same nature as direct dishonesty or fraud, and, therefore would soon come TO BE CONSIDERED disgraceful as well as immoral. Alfred Russel Wallace.

Exercise 8

Underscore all the verbs in the following and note the participles, the infinitives and the various time forms; also the helping verbs:

What, speaking in quite unofficial language, is the net purport of war? To my knowledge, for example, there dwell and toil, in the British village of Dumrudge, usually some five hundred souls. From these, by certain 'natural enemies' of the French, there are selected, say thirty able-bodied men; Dumrudge, at her own expense, has suckled and nursed them; she has, not without difficulty and sorrow, fed them up to manhood and trained them in the crafts, so that one can weave, another build and another hammer. Nevertheless, amidst much weeping and swearing, they are selected; all dressed in red and shipped away, at the public charges, some two thousand miles, or, say only to the south of Spain, and fed there till wanted. And now to that same spot in the south of Spain are thirty similar French artisans, in like manner, wending their ways; till at length the thirty stand facing the thirty, each with his gun in his hand. Straightway, the word 'Fire' is given, and they blow the souls out of one another; and in the place of the sixty brisk, useful craftsmen, the world has sixty dead carcasses, which it must bury and anew shed tears for.

Had these men any quarrel? Busy as the devil is, not the smallest! They lived far enough apart; were the entirest strangers; nay, in so wide a universe, there was even, unconsciously, by commerce, some mutual helpfulness between them.

How then?

Simpleton! Their governors had fallen out; and instead of shooting one another, had these poor blockheads shoot. —Carlyle.

SPELLING

LESSON 11

There are but few rules which can be learned to aid in the spelling of English words. The spelling of words must be largely mastered by concentration and effort of the memory. It will help you to memorize the correct spelling if you will write each word a number of times. This gives you a visual image of the word. Then spell it aloud a number of times. This will give you an auditory image.

Words which you find difficult to master, write in a list by themselves and review frequently. There are a few rules, however, which are helpful to know. There is one rule of spelling we want to learn this week concerning words formed by adding a suffix.

A word of one syllable which ends in a single consonant before which stands a single vowel, doubles the final consonant when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added.

For example: mat, matted, matting; sun, sunned, sunning.

Mat ends in t, a single consonant which is preceded by the single vowel a,—so you double the t when you add the suffix ed or ing, which begin with a vowel.

Notice these: Blend, blended, blending; Help, helped, helping.

These words do not end in a single consonant, so you do not double the consonant.

Notice also: Lean, leaned, leaning; Rain, rained, raining.

These words end in a single consonant, but before the consonant is a double vowel, ea in lean and ai in rain. So we do not double the final consonant.

This same rule holds true of any suffix, beginning with a vowel, as er and est, for example: sad, sadder, saddest. Slim, slimmer, slimmest.

Learn to spell the following words. Add the suffixes ed and ing to the words for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday. Add er and est to the words for Thursday, Friday and Saturday.

Monday

- Chat

- Cheat

- Grin

- Groan

- Suit

Tuesday

- Sap

- Soap

- Bet

- Beat

- Rot

Wednesday

- Talk

- Teach

- Gain

- Stir

- Plan

Thursday

- Thin

- Dear

- Flat

- Cheap

- Straight

Friday

- Clean

- Brief

- Fair

- Shrill

- Wet

Saturday

- Strong

- Great

- Mad

- Fleet

- Fat

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 12

Dear Comrade:

In this lesson we are beginning the study of still another part of speech. You will notice that in words, at least, we give credit and place in society only because of work performed. In the society of men, people are given place and position too often because of outward dress and form or because of some special privilege. They are not given their place in society because of the work which they do or because they perform any useful function. In fact, in our topsy-turvy world, those who perform no work at all, but are simply parasites upon society, have claimed for themselves the best of everything and the highest positions.

Surely some time we shall see a society as successfully organized as our society of words, when men will be received, not because of that which they possess, but because of that which they do and are. Man has really laid the foundation for an ideal commonwealth in his organization of words into a spoken and written language.

When we think back across the centuries and think of the primitive man as he dwelt in trees to protect himself from the wild animals, we wonder what sort of speech he used then. Possibly it was only a little more articulate than the speech of some animals.

But man had within him the instinct to question, and this has been the root of all his progress. We can imagine these primitive men witnessing the wonder of fire, as the terrible unknown god of the lightning set fire to the forest in which they lived; but after the fear had subsided, some adventurous, inquiring forefather of ours ventured near the ashes, and began to investigate concerning this fearful and wonderful thing.

So gradually they discovered the use of fire, and with it a wonderful new future opened before the primitive man. With these great discoveries, he needed a better form of communication with his comrades, so articulate speech developed. But when we go back into the beginning of written speech, it is difficult for us to trace it to its beginning.

The first evidence we find was of man as a sign maker. On the walls of caves in France and Belgium and here in America, we have found rude sketches which the scientists tell us date back to the Ice Age and the Old Stone Age. Here the primitive man has drawn for us crude pictures describing different phases of his life, the animals about him, the hunt and the chase, and in these pictures we find the very beginning of our alphabet of to-day.

How much more wonderful it makes our spoken and written language to know that man has developed it himself. It has not been handed down by some god or powers above; but the spirit of rebellion against the things that be; the great desire to know more and to find out the reason why of all the things around us,—these have been the forces that have led the race from the animal-like beings that lived in trees to the race of today that understands in a large measure the laws that govern life.

It is only as we, through this spirit of rebellion, this same divine discontent with the things that are, seek to do our own thinking that we can add our share to the heritage of the race. Let us have the same courage that must have inspired the heart of that primitive man who dared to venture and inquire concerning the fearful things of nature round about him. Let us think for ourselves. Ask always the question "why" and demand the reason for all things. Thus we shall free ourselves and help to free the race.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

IN PLACE OF A NOUN

202. You remember in our study of the parts of speech we found that we have one part of speech that can be used in place of a noun. This is a very helpful part of speech for it saves us a great deal of tiresome repetition. Notice the following sentences:

- John Smith is a machinist.

- John Smith works at the machine.

- The machine is John Smith's master.

This is awkward and the repetition is tiresome. So we say instead:

- John Smith is a machinist.

- He works at the machine.

- It is his master.

You readily understand who and what we mean by he and it and his, and we will all agree that the latter is a much better way of making the statements. These words like he and his and it, which we use in place of the noun, we call pronouns. Pro means literally in the Latin, for or in place of; so when we say pronoun we are practically saying, in place of a noun.

A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun.

203. The word for which a pronoun stands or the noun in whose place it is used is called its antecedent. Ante means before and cedent comes from the Latin word meaning go, hence antecedent means literally, going before.

Notice this sentence: The manager spoke to the men before he left and told them to stop at the office. Manager is the antecedent of the pronoun he, and men is the antecedent of the pronoun them.

The word for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent.

KINDS OF PRONOUNS

204. The Latin language has had a great deal of influence upon English. Many of our words are taken from the Latin. You remember that all of the names of our parts of speech are derived from Latin words. We also feel the influence of the Latin language in the way in which we number our personal pronouns. The Romans naturally thought that one would think of one's self first, and so the pronouns referring to one's self, or the person speaking, are called the first person pronouns. They are, I, my, mine, me and we, our, ours, and us.

Then they naturally thought that one would think second of the person spoken to, so the pronouns referring to the person spoken to are called the second person pronouns. Formerly thou was used in speaking to one person. In German and many other languages this form is still used, but in English we do not today use the singular form thou with its variations, thy, thine, and thee, except in poetry or poetic prose. In every-day speech we use you and its forms, your and yours, for both the singular and the plural.

Then the Romans considered last the person or thing of whom they were speaking; so pronouns referring to the person or thing spoken of are called the third person pronouns. These are he, she, and it, with their other forms, his, him, her, hers, its, in the singular, and they, their, theirs and them in the plural.

A personal pronoun is one that denotes the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS

205. All of these forms of pronouns which we have named are simple forms; but we have several personal pronouns which have a compound form; that is, a form made by the addition of self or selves to the simple forms.

These are called compound personal pronouns. They are, in the singular, myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, and in the plural, ourselves, yourselves and themselves.

The compound personal pronouns have two uses, reflexive and emphatic.

Reflexive

206. A compound personal pronoun has a reflexive use when the actor becomes the object of its own action or in other words when the subject and the object refer to the same thing; as in this sentence, He has hurt himself, himself is the object of the incomplete verb has hurt, but it refers to the subject he. Reflexive is from the Latin re meaning back and from the Latin verb meaning throw, so reflexive means literally thrown back. These pronouns throw their meaning back to the subject.

Emphatic

207. A compound personal pronoun has also an emphatic use when it directs especial attention to the noun or pronoun to which it refers. For example in the sentence, He did the work himself, or, He, himself, did the work, himself gives emphasis or intensifies the meaning of the pronoun he.

Remember a compound personal pronoun is correctly used only in these two ways, reflexive and emphatic. For example, the following sentences are incorrect:

- This is for yourself and your comrade.

- Ourselves will find out the reason.

The correct form would be:

- This is for you and your comrade.

- We, ourselves, will find out the reason.

208. You can readily distinguish between the reflexive and the emphatic use. In the reflexive, the compound personal pronoun is always the object of a verb or preposition, and the subject of the sentence is its antecedent. The subject and the object always refer to the same thing.

In the emphatic use, the compound personal pronoun is neither the subject nor the object, but is thrown into the sentence simply to render it emphatic, and to call special attention to its antecedent.

Exercise 1

Supply the compound personal pronoun in the following blanks and tell whether the use is reflexive or emphatic.

1. He discovered the truth.......

2. The workers have robbed......by their ignorance.

3. You must educate.......

4. You must do the work.......

5. He must defend.......

6. Capitalism overreaches.......

7. The people will rule.......

8. We will settle the question.......

Write six sentences in which the compound personal pronouns are correctly used.

SINGULAR AND PLURAL

209. Personal pronouns, like nouns, have number form. Nouns simply add s to the singular form to denote the plural, but in personal pronouns we have different words which we use to express one or more than one person or thing. In the first, second, and third person forms, personal pronouns also have different forms for the object form, the possessive and the subject form. The following table gives the singular and plural of the subject form,—that is the form which is used as the subject of the sentence.

Subject Form

Singular

Plural

First person.

I

We

Second person.

You

You

Third person.

He, she, it.

They

Compound Personal Pronouns

Singular

Plural

First.

Myself

Ourselves

Second.

Yourself

Yourselves

Third.

Himself, herself, itself.

Themselves

210. Remember that the first person refers to the person speaking, the second to the person spoken to, and the third person to the person or things spoken of. When we speak of things, we never use the first or second person, unless we are speaking of them in a personified form. So in the third person singular, we have the pronoun it which refers to one thing. In the plural, we have no special pronoun referring to things, but the pronoun they is used to refer both to persons and things.

Exercise 2

Which of the following pronouns refer to the person speaking, which to the person spoken to, and which to the person or thing spoken of? Which are singular, which plural?

- I will defend my principles.

- Give them to me for they are mine.

- Do you believe him to be your friend?

- We saw their mistake at once.

- They acknowledged it was their fault.

- Success will be your portion if you persevere.

- He struggles for his rights; she does not understand her rights.

- It forces us to struggle for our education.

- Woman craves her freedom.

- Workers of the world, unite; you have a world to gain and nothing to lose but your chains.

Form sentences of your own containing all these pronouns.

POSSESSIVE FORM

211. You will note in these sentences above that we have used the pronoun my and your and his and her as my principles, your friend, his rights, her freedom. This is the possessive form of these personal pronouns, the form that denotes ownership or possession. You remember that nouns had a possessive form, a form to denote possession or ownership, as, The man's book. The boy's school. The worker's college. So pronouns also have a possessive form which we use to show that an object belongs to such and such a person or thing. If I want to tell you that I own or possess a home, I say, I own my home. Each personal pronoun has its possessive form, thus:

Singular

Subject Form

Possessive

First person.

I

My, mine

Second person.

You

Your, yours

Third person.

He, she, it.

His, her, hers, its

Plural

Subject Form

Possessive

First person.

We

Our, ours

Second person.

You

Your, yours

Third person.

They

Their, theirs

POSSESSIVE FORM

212. You will notice that the possessive forms, my, our, her, your, its, his and their, are always used with the name of the object possessed. As for example; my work, our library, her delight, your task, its purpose, his home, their mistake.

213. The possessive forms, mine, thine, hers, ours, yours and theirs, are always used by themselves and are used either as subject, object or complement. As for example:

- That letter is mine.

- The work is hers.

- Thine is the glory.

- Is that yours?

- Theirs not to reason why; theirs but to do and die.

The possessive form his may be used either in connection with the name of the object possessed or by itself. For example:

- This is his home.

- This home is his.

OBJECT FORM

214. Pronouns have one form which nouns do not have. We use the same form for the noun no matter whether it is the subject or the object. For example:

- The man saw me.

- I saw the man.

In the first sentence man is the subject of the verb saw, and in the second sentence man is the object of the verb saw. The same word is used; but you will notice that in the first sentence me is the object of the verb saw, and in the second I is the subject; yetboth refer to the same person, the first person, the person speaking.

So we have a different form of the pronoun for the object, for example: I saw him. He saw me. She watched us. We watched her. You found them. Him, me, us, her, and them in these sentences are used as the objects of the verbs, see, watch and found, and are called the object forms of the pronouns. You and it have the same form for both the subject and object; as, You did it. It frightens you. Her is used as both the possessive form and the object form, as, Her work tires her.

215. The following table gives the subject and the object forms of the personal pronouns, and these should never be confused in their usage. We must not use the object form as the subject of the verb, nor the subject form as the object of the verb.

Singular

Subject

Object

First. I

Me

Second. You

You

Third. He, she, it.

Him, her, it

Plural

Subject

Object

First. We

Us

Second. You

You

Third. They

Them

GENDER

216. You notice in all of these tables that there are three forms given for the third person singular, he, she, and it. These are the only forms in which pronouns express gender. In all other forms the gender can be determined only by the gender of the antecedent.

He, representing a male, is masculine.

She, representing a female, is the feminine.

It represents a sexless thing, and hence is said to be of the neuter gender.

THE LITTLE VERB BE

217. You remember when we studied verbs, we had the incomplete verb that took an object; the complete verb that needed no object, since it was complete in itself; and one other kind of a verb. Do you remember this third kind of verb? This third kind is the copulative verb, and the copulative verb which we use most frequently is the one in the use of which we make the most mistakes.

It is that troublesome, bothersome, little verb be, which is so difficult to master. You remember it is an incomplete verb, but instead of taking an object, it takes a complement or completing word. So when you see a pronoun with any form of this verb be, you must use the subject form and not the object form. This copulative verb be is simply a connecting word, not a verb that asserts action or takes an object.

218. Here is where we make so many mistakes. We say, It was me, It was them, It was him, It wasn't her; instead of, It was I, It was they, It was he, It wasn't she. We have used the incorrect form in this particular so often that the correct form has a strange sound to our ears.

The only way to remedy this is to repeat over and over aloud the correct form until it has a familiar sound. Don't think this is putting on airs. It is not. It is simply demanding the best for yourself in words, as you should do in everything. We of the working class have built the world in its beauty. Why should we live in shacks, dress in shoddy, talk in slang? There is no reason except that we endure it. When the united working class demands its own, it will receive it. Demand yours and arouse the stupid from their sleep as rapidly as you can.

Repeat the following sentences aloud ten times every day this week and see if the correct form does not come to your lips more readily. We can learn the rule, but only continued practice and watchfulness can break us of our old habits.

- It is I who seek my own.

- It shall be they who are defeated.

- It was I who was ignorant.

- It is they who cause all wars.

- It is he who must be aroused.

- It is we who strive for freedom.

- It shall be I who shall win.

- It was she who was enslaved.

- It shall be we who shall demand equality.

- It shall be they who shall conquer.

Agreement

219. Pronouns are very agreeable members of the co-operative commonwealth of words. They strive to agree with their antecedents. Sometimes we do not allow the pronoun to agree, and then our sentence is incorrect.

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender and person.

For example, if you are referring to one man, you must use a masculine pronoun, singular, third person form, as I saw the man but he did not see me. Man is the antecedent. It is singular, masculine, third person and so we use the pronoun he.

The girl came, but she could not stay. In this sentence girl is the antecedent; it is singular, feminine, third person, and so we use the pronoun she.

The boys did not come when the teacher called them. In this sentence boys is the antecedent; it is plural, masculine, third person, and so we use the pronoun them.

220. Sometimes there are two words used as the antecedent, joined by and. We use a singular pronoun in referring to them if they denote the same person or thing; as:

- The secretary and treasurer (one person) resigned his position.

- My comrade and friend (one person) gave me his help.

221. But two nouns joined by and, that mean different persons or things, must be represented by a plural pronoun, thus:

- Marx and Engels (two persons) wrote their call to liberty, the Communist-Manifesto.

- Men and women will struggle for their freedom.

- Childhood and youth should have their rightful joys.

222. Use the singular pronoun when the nouns are kept separate by the use of each, every, many a, or no.

- Each man and boy must do his part. (Not their part.)

- Every soldier and every officer must do his duty.

- Many a city and many a village gave its best to the army.

- No comrade and no Socialist will give his consent to war.

223. If you have two singular nouns as antecedents, joined by or, or nor, use the singular pronoun, thus:

- Either Germany or France must abandon its position.

- Neither Wilson nor Bryan kept his promise to the people.

224. When you use a collective noun and are speaking of the collection as a whole, use a singular pronoun, as:

- The committee will make its report.

- The audience was hearty in its appreciation.

- The jury has returned its verdict.

225. But if you are referring to the individuals of the collection separately, use a plural pronoun; as:

- The committee adjourned for their dinner.

- The audience kept their seats until the close.

- The jury argued until their nerves were on edge.

PERSONIFICATION

226. We sometimes speak of things as if they were persons, and so use either masculine or feminine pronouns in referring to them. Such objects are said to be personified. Thus, we say:

- The sun his ceaseless course doth run.

- The moon sheds her silvery ray.

- Nature dons her robes of green.

Here we speak of the sun as though it were a man or possessing the qualities of a man and use the pronoun his. Then we speak of the moon and nature as though they were women and use the pronoun in the feminine form.

REMEMBER

227. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent.

Use the subject form of the pronoun if the pronoun is the subject of the sentence.

Use the object form when the pronoun is the object of a verb or a preposition.

Use the compound personal pronouns only in their reflexive or emphatic use.

With all forms of the verb be, use the subject form of the pronouns.

SUMMARY

SUBJECT

POSSESSIVE

OBJECT

First person

(Singular

I

my (mine)

me

(Plural

we

our (ours)

us

Second person

(Singular

you

your (yours)

you

(Plural

Third person

(Sing. Masc.

he

his

him

(Sing. Fem.

she

her (hers)

her

(Sing. Neut.

it

its

it

(Plural

they

their (theirs)

them

Exercise 3

Read carefully the following beautiful dream of Olive Schreiner's. Mark all of the personal pronouns and note carefully their use and by referring to the table above decide just what form each pronoun is. Watch carefully too for the antecedents of the pronouns and note the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent.

"I THOUGHT I STOOD"

I.

I thought I stood in Heaven before God's throne, and God asked me what I had come for. I said I had come to arraign my brother, Man.

God said, "What has he done?"

I said, "He has taken my sister, Woman, and has stricken her and wounded her and thrust her out into the streets; she lies there prostrate. His hands are red with blood. I am here to arraign him; that the kingdom be taken from him, because he is not worthy, and given unto me. My hands are pure."

I showed them.

God said, "Thy hands are pure. Lift up thy robe."

I raised it; my feet were red, blood-red, as if I had trodden in wine.

God said, "How is this?"

I said, "Dear Lord, the streets on earth are full of mire. If I should walk straight on in them my outer robe might be bespotted, you see how white it is! Therefore I pick my way."

God said, "On what?"

I was silent, and let my robe fall. I wrapped my mantle about my head. I went out softly. I was afraid that the angels would see me.

II.

Once more I stood at the gate of Heaven, I and another. We held fast by one another; We were very tired. We looked up at the great gates; angels opened them, and we went in. The mud was on our garments. We walked across the marble floor, and up to the great throne. Then the angels divided us. Her, they set upon the top step, but me, upon the bottom; for, they said, "Last time this woman came here she left red foot-marks on the floor; we had to wash them out with our tears. Let her not go up."

Then she with whom I came, looked back and stretched out her hands to me; and I went and stood beside her. And the angels, they, the shining ones who never sinned and never suffered, walked by us, to and fro, up and down; I think we should have felt a little lonely there if it had not been for one another, the angels were so bright.

God asked me what I had come for; and I drew my sister forward a little that He might see her.

God said, "How is it you are here together today?"

I said, "She was upon the ground in the street, and they passed over her; I lay down by her, and she put her arms around my neck, and so I lifted her, and we two rose together."

God said, "Whom are you now come to accuse before Me?"

I said, "We are come to accuse no man."

And God bent and said, "My children—what is it that you seek?"

And she beside me drew my hand that I should speak for both.

I said, "We have come to ask that Thou shouldst speak to Man, our brother, and give us a message for him that he might understand, and that he might——"

God said, "Go, take the message down to him!"

I said, "But what is the message?"

God said, "Upon your hearts it is written; take it down to him."

And we turned to go; the angels went with us to the door. They looked at us.

And one said, "Ah! but their dresses are beautiful!"

And the other said, "I thought it was mire when they came in, but see, it is all golden!"

But another said, "Hush, it is the light from their faces!"

And we went down to him.—Olive Schreiner.

The Cry of the People

Tremble before your chattels,

Lords of the scheme of things!

Fighters of all earth's battles,

Ours is the might of kings!

Guided by seers and sages,

The world's heart-beat for a drum,

Snapping the chains of ages,

Out of the night we come!

Lend us no ear that pities!

Offer no almoner's hand!

Alms for the builders of cities!

When will you understand?

Down with your pride of birth

And your golden gods of trade!

A man is worth to his mother, Earth,

All that a man has made!

We are the workers and makers!

We are no longer dumb!

Tremble, O Shirkers and Takers!

Sweeping the earth—we come!

Ranked in the world-wide dawn,

Marching into the day!

The night is gone and the sword is drawn

And the scabbard is thrown away!

—Neihardt.

SPELLING

LESSON 12

Last week we learned the rule governing the spelling of derivatives of one syllable ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel when we add a suffix beginning with a vowel.

The same rule applies to words of two or more syllables, accented on the last syllable.

For example:

- Compel, compelled, compelling.

- Prefer, preferred, preferring.

Words accented on the last syllable, when they end in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant when you add a suffix beginning with a vowel.

When these words take a suffix that begins with a consonant, they do not double the final consonant; as, preferment.

Words accented on any syllable but the last, do not double the final consonant; as, offer, offered, offering.

Words that have two vowels before a single final consonant do not double the final consonant; as, reveal, revealed, revealing.

Words that end in a double consonant or any two consonants, keep the two consonants, no matter what suffix they take; as, indent, indented; skill, skilled, skillful.

The only exception to this rule is when the addition of the suffix throws the accent back to a preceding syllable. When this is the case, the final consonant is not doubled. For example: refer, referred, ref'erence; confer, conferring, con'ference.

Look up the following words in the dictionary, watch for the accent, mark and add the suffixes, ed, ing, ence or ance, if possible.

Monday

- Repel

- Alter

- Prefer

- Debar

- Answer

Tuesday

- Inter

- Offer

- Demur

- Wonder

- Succeed

Wednesday

- Detain

- Combat

- Compel

- Occur

- Cancel

Thursday

- Permit

- Travel

- Repeal

- Control

- Profit

Friday

- Forbid

- Neglect

- Expel

- Render

- Infer

Saturday

- Benefit

- Retain

- Submit

- Reveal

- Limit

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 13

Dear Comrade:

Did you ever tie a knot in your handkerchief to help you remember to get something you felt almost sure you would forget? Well, tying a knot in a cord was one of the first ways devised by our ancestors of long ago to aid them to remember. They also used this plan to send word to those at a distance or to keep track of things for succeeding generations. A relic of this old device of our forefathers is also found in the rosary on which the Roman Catholic counts his beads as an aid to memory.

There are some primitive tribes to-day who still use knotted strings as an aid to memory. These consist of a main cord, and fastened at given distances are finer cords of different colors. Each cord is knotted in different ways to mean different things and each color, too, has its own meaning. A red string stands for soldiers, a yellow for gold, and a green for corn, and so on, while a single knot may mean ten, two single knots twenty, a double knot 100, two double knots 200. In this way, they keep a record of things, transmit orders and use them for various purposes.

Only a generation ago the tax gatherers in the Island of Hawaii kept account of the assessable property on lines of cordage knotted in this manner, and these cords in some cases were three thousand feet long. The method of keeping track of things by means of a notched stick is easily within the memory of many people living today. For in England in the early part of the last century, accounts of debts to the government were kept by means of tally sticks, which were merely notched sticks.

Such methods as these were the only ways primitive man had of keeping track of things before he had discovered the art of written speech. And even after written speech was known and used, these old methods persisted.

Gradually, step by step, man has come along the path of progress. Adventurous spirits, not satisfied with the old way of doing things, sought new ways. The conservatives of their day thought them dangerous people, no doubt, and feared that they would destroy the very foundations of society. And this they oft-times did, but only that there might rise a more perfect form of society. It is the seeking, questioning mind that demands the reason for all things, that seeks ever better ways of doing things. They have always throughout the ages refused to bow to the authority of the past but have dared to live their own lives. To them we owe the progress of the world and we are the inheritors of their spirit.

Let us prove our kinship by daring to live our own lives and think our own thoughts.

Yours for Freedom,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

228. You recall that in our first lesson we studied concerning the four different kinds of sentences which we use in expressing our thoughts, the assertive, the interrogative, the imperative and the exclamatory. The interrogative sentence is the form which we use in asking a question, interrogative being derived from the Latin inter, meaning between, and rogare, to ask, meaning literally to ask between. The interrogative sentence differs from the assertive sentence in the arrangement of the words; for in order to ask questions, we usually place the predicate, or part of it at least, before the subject, thus:

- Can you use good English?

- Did you spell the word correctly?

- Has he studied grammar?

In these sentences, you note that the helping verbs, can, did and has, are placed first instead of the subject. It is by this arrangement that we put the sentence in the interrogative form.

229. Frequently, however, in asking questions we wish to ask concerning a person or thing whose name we do not know. So we need a word to refer to the unknown object. See how these uses of words grow out of our need! We have three interrogative pronouns, who and which and what, that we use to meet this need. Notice the use of these three pronouns in the following sentences:

- Who wrote the Communist Manifesto?

- Which of the two men is the better known?

- What are the closing words of this famous document?

In these sentences, who and which and what are the interrogative pronouns, used to ask questions concerning the unknown persons or objects.

230. Who refers only to human beings or to personified objects.

Which refers either to human beings, animals or things.

What refers only to things.

Which and what have the same form for both the subject and the object. Who has a different form for all three forms, the subject form, the possessive form, and the object form. It uses the same form, however, both in singular and plural.

Subject form

Possessive form

Object form

Who

Whose

Whom

231. We often make mistakes in the use of the different forms of the pronoun who. We often use the subject form for the object form, using who where we should have used whom. For example:

- Who did you see?

The correct form is:

- Whom did you see?

The pronoun whom is the object of the verb see, hence the object form should be used. However, the use of the subject form who instead of whom is coming into such general use today that some grammarians accept it as a permissible usage. The will of the people influences language, as it does all other human institutions, and gradually creates new rules.

Write three sentences, using who, which and what as interrogative pronouns.

An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used to ask a question.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

232. There is one other class of pronouns which plays a great part in our speech and is a wonderful help to us. For example, suppose I want to tell you several things about this book. I say: I am reading this book. It interests me greatly. Now it would be a great advantage to me if I could put these two sentences together, and we have for this use a pronoun which makes it possible for us to combine these sentences, and so I say:

- The book which I am reading interests me greatly.

Thus I am able to unite two short sentences into a long sentence, which conveys my meaning better than the two short sentences and gives a smoother bit of reading. We have four pronouns which we use in this way, who, which, that and what and they are called relative pronouns because they refer or relate to some noun in the sentence and they also serve to connect two statements.

233. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that relates to an antecedent and at the same time connects two statements.

A relative pronoun always relates to its antecedent and at the same time connects the statement that it introduces with the one that contains the antecedent to which it relates, as in the sentence above, The book which I am reading, interests me greatly. Which is the relative pronoun; first, because it relates to the antecedent, book; and second, because it connects the statement, I am reading, with the rest of the sentence. Notice these sentences also:

- The man who thinks will not enlist in the army.

- We will destroy the system that enslaves us.

Who and that are the relative pronouns in these two sentences and their antecedents are man and system, and they connect the statements, who thinks and that enslaves us, with the rest of the sentence.

234. Who is used to relate to persons.

Which is used to relate only to animals and things.

That may relate to either persons, animals or things.

What relates to things.

Note that which, as an interrogative, may refer to persons as well as to animals and things; but as a relative, which never refers to persons.

235. Note that we use the same pronouns who, which and what as both relative and interrogative pronouns. You will not be confused in this matter if you will remember that they are called interrogative pronouns only when they are used to ask questions. When they are used as interrogative pronouns they never have an antecedent. Who and which and what are always relative pronouns when used in an assertive sentence and referring to an antecedent.

That and what have the same form for both the subject and object forms. They have no possessive form. Who has a different form for the subject form and the possessive form and the object form. Which has the same form for subject and object forms, and a different form for the possessive form. Note the following:

Subject form

Possessive form

Object form

who

whose

whom

which

whose

which

- I know the man who called him.

- I know the man whose voice I hear.

- I know the man whom they called.

In these three sentences we have the pronoun who used in its three forms, subject, possessive and object form. We should be very careful not to confuse the subject and the object forms of the pronoun who.

- This is the book which tells the truth.

- This is the book whose author is in prison.

- This is the book which I wanted.

In these three sentences we have the pronoun which used in its three forms, subject form, possessive form and object form. In the first sentence the pronoun is the subject of the verb tells; in the second sentence, it is used in the possessive form with the noun author; in the third sentence, it is used as the object of the verb wanted.

236. What differs from the other relative pronouns in that its antecedent is never expressed, for it is implied in the word itself. What is always equivalent to that which, or the thing which. For example, the sentence, Do not tell what I have told you, is equivalent to saying, Do not tell that which I have told you, or the thing which I have told you.

237. Never use what in a sentence as a relative pronoun unless you can replace it and make good sense by using that which, or the thing which in place of what.

For example, do not say, I know that what he would say. This is incorrect. You should say, I know that which he would say, or I know what he would say, using what in place of that which. Here is a sentence that occurred in an English examination recently, which illustrates most aptly this point. A subject is that what something is said about. Here what is used incorrectly. A subject is that about which something is said, would have been the correct form.

Watch for this in your speech for it is a most common error and to the educated ear is harsh and marks the speaker as uneducated. All of these mistakes which we make so commonly will require a considerable amount of effort to overcome, but the result is worth the effort, for even those about us who will not take the pains or give the required time and effort to acquiring an education for themselves, will give greater heed to the speech of those who do speak correctly, and will readily acknowledge the leadership of those who have given the time and effort to self-development.

238. The antecedent of who is sometimes omitted and understood; for example, Who follows the cause must endure hardship, He, is understood and omitted. He who follows the cause must endure hardship.

239. The relative pronoun itself is often omitted. For example:

- These are the men (whom) you must help.

- The words (that) you use and the deeds (that) you do, are your judges.

240. The relative pronouns have compound forms also, such as whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever and whatsoever, which are used in the same manner as the simple forms.

COMMON ERRORS

241. Here are a number of common errors which only constant practice and watchfulness can overcome. Study these over and watch your conversation closely. Force yourself to speak correctly for a time, and soon correct speech will become a habit.

1. Do not use both a noun and a pronoun as the subject of a sentence; as, John, he waited for me. Mary, she refused to go. Leave out the pronouns he and she in these sentences. They are unnecessary and incorrect.

2. Never use hern, ourn, hisn or yourn for hers, ours, his and yours; as, The book is hisn. Ourn stopped on the first. Did you get yourn? Say: This book is his. Ours stopped on the first. Did you get yours?

3. Never say hisself for himself. There is no such word as hisself. Do not say, He hurt hisself. Say, He hurt himself.

4. Do not say them for those; as, Did you bring them songs? Them things are not right. Say, Did you bring those songs? Those things are not right.

5. Do not use an apostrophe in writing the possessive forms of pronouns, as her's, our's, it's. Leave out the apostrophe and write hers, ours, its.

6. Do not use who to relate to animals or things; as, The dog who bit me was killed. Say, The dog that bit me was killed.

7. Do not use myself as the subject. It can be used only as an emphatic or reflexive pronoun. It is correct to say, I found the book myself, and I hurt myself. But do not say, They asked my friend and myself, or Myself and my wife will go. Say, They asked my friend and me. My wife and I will go.

8. Avoid the use of pronouns when the reference to the antecedent is not clear. Better repeat the nouns or re-write the sentence. For example:

- He said to his friend that if he did not feel better soon he thought he had better go home.

Now you can interpret this in at least four different ways. No one but the speaker can ever know to whom the pronouns he refer, whether to the speaker or to his friend. Or in the sentence,

- A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not because he was so short.

Who was short, A or B? John's father died before he was born. Did John's father die before John was born or did John's father die before John's father, himself, was born? Be careful in the use of pronouns in this way.

9. Remember that I, we, he, she, they and who are always used as subject forms and also as the complement of all forms of the verb be.

10. Remember that me, him, her, them, us and whom are always object forms. Never say, They charged he and I too much. Say, They charged him and me too much. In an attempt to speak correctly and follow the niceties of English, this mistake is so often made. Always use the object form as the object of a verb or preposition.

11. When a participle is used as a noun, and a pronoun is used with it, the pronoun should always be in the possessive form. We make this mistake so frequently. For example, we say: Us going there was a mistake. We should have used the possessive form, Our going there was a mistake. I have never known of him being absent from work. We should say: I have never known of his being absent from work. Did he tell you about me joining with them? This should be, Did he tell you about my joining with them? You talking to him set him to thinking. This should be, Your talking to him set him to thinking. Watch this and wherever you have used a participle as a noun, use the pronoun in the possessive form, as you would with any other noun.

12. Watch carefully that the number of the pronoun always agrees with the number of its antecedent. If you are speaking of one person or thing use a singular pronoun. If you are speaking of more than one person or thing in your antecedent, use the plural pronoun. For example: Each man must do his own work. The soldiers fully understood their danger.

13. When a singular noun, in the common gender (this means that it may name either a male or female being), is the antecedent of the pronoun, it is customary for us to use the masculine pronoun. For example:

- Every student should send in his examination paper promptly.

- Every member of the class may select his own subject.

Do not use the pronoun their when the antecedent is a singular noun.

SUMMARY

Pronoun—In Place of a Noun

CLASSES

Personal

{

Simple—

{

1st Person, speaking.

Compound—

2nd Person, spoken to.

3rd Person, spoken of.

Interrogative

{

To ask questions.

Who, which and what.

Relative

{

To refer to another word and connect two statements.

Who, which, that and what.

Exercise 1

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of I, me, or myself, in the blank spaces:

1. My partner and......joined the union.

2. They asked Henry and......to go.

3. May my friend and......call?

4. I will attend to that.......

5. Let my comrade and......go with you.

6. Are you sure it was......?

7. I blame......for joining with them.

8. They accused......of bothering them.

9. I am nearly beside......with grief.

10. The manager dismissed the men......among the rest.

Exercise 2

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of we, us or ourselves in the blank spaces:

1. They are better off than.......

2. The French as well as......claim a war of defense.

3. Can you blame......who have always stood by you?

4. We will do that for.......

5. Between......comrades there should be no differences.

6. They gave......men work.

7. Do not trouble;......will attend to this.......

8. They sent a special notice to our friends and.......

Exercise 3

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of thou, thee, thy or thyself in the blank spaces:

1. To......be true, and it follows as the night the day...... canst not then be false to any man.

2. Paul,......art beside......; much learning hath made ......mad.

3. ......shalt love......neighbor as.......

4. Trust....... Every heart vibrates to that iron string.

Exercise 4

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of he, him, or himself in the blank spaces:

1. ......and John are to blame.

2. I think it was.......

3. My friend and......called on you.

4. He blamed......for the accident.

5. You are no better than.......

6. I shall call for you and.......

7. You and......must come on time.

8. He found the place.......

9. There should be no quarrel between you and......who loves you.

10. If you were......would you go?

Exercise 5

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of she, her, or herself in the blank spaces:

1. They asked Mary and......to go.

2. Mary and......went.

3. May......and I go with you?

4. Let......and Harry go.

5. Is that Mary? Yes, it is.......

6. There are many points of difference between......and me.

7. You are more beautiful than.......

8. She brought it to me.......

9. If......and I join you, will you go?

10. They must not quarrel over......and me.

Exercise 6

Complete the following sentences using the correct form of they, them, or themselves in the blank spaces:

1. They gave......up.

2. ......and I will finish the work.

3. I found......where......hath thrown......down to rest.

4. I am sure it was......for I saw......plainly.

5. The workers enslave......by their lack of solidarity.

6. ......must learn the lesson.......

Exercise 7

Cross out the wrong word in the following sentences:

1. Everybody do—does as he pleases—they please.

2. No one should waste his—their opportunities.

3. The jury rendered its—their verdict.

4. If anyone wishes war, let him—them do the fighting.

5. The audience displayed its—their approval by its—their applause.

6. The audience remained quietly in its—their seats.

7. The jury adjourned for its—their dinner.

8. Nobody willingly gives up his—their rights.

9. Each one may express his—their opinion.

10. Every man received his—their wages.

Exercise 8

Complete the following sentences by using the correct form of the pronouns who, whose, or whom:

1. ......do you think I am?

2. I am the man......you taught yesterday.

3. With......are you going?

4. The contract was let to a man......we are sure cannot fulfill it.

5. The contractor......wishes to bid will come tomorrow.

6. On......are you depending?

7. The friends......counsel I took, stood by me.

8. He is a man......I am sure will succeed.

9. We tried to talk to those......we thought would understand us.

10. For......did you work?

Exercise 9

Insert who, whose, whom, which, that or what in the blanks in the following sentences:

1. Man is the only animal......uses a written speech.

2. Can you save......you earn?

3. Ricardo's law was that the workers always receive a wage......permits them to produce and reproduce.

4. Have you read the book "War, What For"......Kirkpatrick wrote?

5. Newspapers......distort the news......they print to serve the ruling class are dangerous foes to the workers.

6. The massacre at Ludlow was an event......aroused the working class.

7. They......live by the labor of others are drones in society and should be given the fate......they deserve.

8. The big machine gun......will destroy slavery is the printing press.

9. The man......leadership we should follow is he......preaches social equality.

Exercise 10

In the following quotations note the use of the pronouns and mark whether they are personal, relative or interrogative, whether they are used in the subject form, possessive form or object form:

1. "Camerado, I give you my hand,

I give you my love more precious than money,

I give you myself before preaching or law;

Will you give me yourself, will you come travel with me,

Shall we stick by each other as long as we live?"

2. "I think I could turn and live with animals they are so placid and self-contained,

I stand and look at them long and long, they do not sweat and whine about their condition,

They do not lie awake in the dark and weep for their sins,

They do not make me sick discussing their duty to God;

Not one is dis-satisfied, not one is demented with the mania of owning things.

Not one kneels to another nor to his kind, that lived thousands of years ago,

Not one is respectable or unhappy over the whole earth."

—Whitman.

Exercise 11

Note the omission of the antecedent in the first sentence, also the use of the relative what in the last sentence of the first paragraph:

"Whoso would be a man, must be nonconformist. He who would gather immortal palms must not be hindered by the name of goodness, but must explore if it be goodness. Nothing is at last sacred but the integrity of our own mind. Absolve you to yourself, and you shall have the suffrage of the world. I remember an answer which, when quite young, I was prompted to make to a valued adviser who was wont to importune me with the dear old doctrines of the church. On my saying, "What have I to do with the sacredness of traditions, if I live wholly from within?" my friend suggested—"But these impulses may be from below, not from above." I replied, "They do not seem to me to be such; but if I am the devil's child, I will live then from the devil." No law can be sacred to me but that of my nature. Good and bad are but names very readily transferable to that or this; the only right is what is after my constitution; the only wrong what is against it.

A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds, adored by little statesmen and philosophers and divines. With consistency a great soul has simply nothing to do. He may as well concern himself with his shadow on the wall. Out upon your guarded lips! Sew them up with pack threads, do. Else, if you would be a man, speak what you think today in words as hard as cannon balls, and tomorrow speak what tomorrow thinks in hard words again, though you contradict everything you said today. Ah, then, exclaim the aged ladies, you shall be sure to be misunderstood. Misunderstood! It is a right fool's word. Is it so bad then to be misunderstood? Pythagoras was misunderstood, and Socrates, and Jesus, and Luther, and Copernicus, and Galileo, and Newton, and every pure and wise spirit that ever took flesh. To be great is to be misunderstood."—Emerson.

SPELLING

LESSON 13

There are a few more rules governing the spelling of derivative words. Words ending in silent e keep the e before the suffix beginning with a consonant. Notice the following words:

excite

excitement

like

likeness

force

forceful

shame

shameless

lone

lonesome

live

lively

Words ending in silent e drop the e before the suffix beginning with a vowel, as:

excite

excitable

live

living

grieve

grievous

force

forcible

Some words ending in silent e retain the e before the suffix beginning with a vowel, to prevent a change in the pronunciation or to preserve the identity of the word. Notice the following words:

peace

peaceable

courage

courageous

singe

singeing

change

changeable

shoe

shoeing

notice

noticeable

These are words ending in the soft sound of c and g, where the e is retained to preserve the correct pronunciation of the c and g, and with some few words like toe, dye, etc., where the dropping of the e would lose the identity of the word.

The e is dropped in a few words before the suffix beginning with a consonant, as in wholly, nursling, judgment, wisdom, lodgment.

Add the suffixes ment and ing to the words in Monday's lesson; the suffix able to the words for Tuesday and Wednesday; the suffixes some and ous to the words for Thursday; the suffixes ly or ness to the words for Friday and Saturday.

Monday

- Excite

- Advise

- Chastise

- Disfranchise

- Enslave

Tuesday

- Manage

- Receive

- Blame

- Exchange

- Imagine

Wednesday

- Admire

- Service

- Desire

- Peace

- Pronounce

Thursday

- Whole

- Meddle

- Courage

- Advantage

- Outrage

Friday

- Accurate

- Positive

- False

- Definite

- Distinct

Saturday

- Agreeable

- Careful

- Awful

- Sure

- Secure

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 14

Dear Comrade:

You remember our definition of a word; a word is the sign of an idea. In our lessons we have been studying the different kinds of words which we use in the expression of our complete thoughts. Probably the first step in the development of language was to name the objects about us. Then the next logical step would be to invent words which would tell what these objects did. So we have our nouns, which are the names of things; our verbs, which tell what these things do; and in these we have the foundation for spoken and written speech. We soon found, however, that the constant repetition of a name was tiresome and annoying, so we invented words which we could use in place of these nouns; and we have pronouns.

All of the things about us possess certain qualities and our next great need was for words to describe these qualities; so we have adjectives. Each adjective is a sign of an idea. It adds its part to the expression of our complete thought. So we find that each part of speech comes logically in its place to fill a certain need. Without any one of them, we would be crippled in our power of expression. Each different word is the sign of an idea and the combination of these ideas as represented by the various signs gives us the complete expression of our thought.

So primitive man in the development of written speech had signs to express the various things about him. Naturally his first sign was a picture, as nearly as he could draw it, of the object itself. If he wanted to tell you about a tree he drew a picture of the tree; the picture of a man represented a man, and so on. You will notice among children that this is the first development in their endeavor to express their thoughts in writing. They draw pictures. The average small child cannot understand why you read those strange marks on the page. They want you to read the pictures. To their mind that is the only way to communicate ideas.

These early forefathers of ours grew to be very adept at this picture writing. We have examples of this among the Indians of our own country. There is a picture on the face of a big rock on the shores of Lake Superior which records an expedition across the lake led by a noted Indian chief. Canoes are shown in the picture with the crew denoted by a series of upright strokes and there is a picture of the chief on horseback. You or I would have great difficulty in reading this picture writing, but an Indian could read it right off just as we would read a written page. Aids to memory such as knotted strings and tally sticks were the first step toward written speech. This picture writing was the second step toward the development of written speech.

We owe a great deal to the work which these primitive ancestors of ours accomplished. It took them years and years to develop through these different stages and our rapid development of the last few centuries has only been made possible because of this slow and patient building of the foundation. An understanding of this helps us to appreciate the place we occupy in this great struggle of the ages. The power of written speech opens up to us such tremendous possibilities. Let us make the most of them, that we too may hand on worth while things to those who follow us.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES

242. Adjectives, like nouns and pronouns, are divided into classes. Adjectives are divided into two main classes, qualifying and limiting.

243. An adjective which qualifies a noun is one which names some quality which is possessed by the word which it modifies. When we say, Trees grow, we are making a general statement; that is, we are saying something that is true of any kind of trees. We have not described any particular tree. But when we say, The tall trees grow, The old trees grow, The young trees grow, the words tall, old and young describe certain qualities of the trees, which separate them into classes. So these adjectives are qualifying adjectives.

An adjective qualifies a noun when it attributes some quality to the noun, as, The brave man, The sweet apple, The pretty girl, The large house, etc.

244. But if we say, this tree, that tree, some trees, many trees, three trees, or four trees, we are not giving any quality of the tree, but are pointing out a particular tree or trees and limiting the word to the ones pointed out. So such adjectives as the, this, that, some, many, three and four are limiting adjectives. An adjective limits a noun when it restricts or limits its meaning as to quantity or number.

245. So adjectives are divided into two classes, qualifying adjectives and limiting adjectives.

Words that limit or qualify other words are called modifiers because they modify or affect the meaning of the words to which they are added. So adjectives are modifiers of the nouns and pronouns to which they are added because they modify or qualify or limit the meaning of the noun or pronoun.

The limiting adjectives answer the questions which and how many. The qualifying adjectives answer the questions which and what kind.

246. A qualifying adjective is an adjective which describes the noun it modifies by attributing to it some quality.

A limiting adjective is an adjective which merely shows which one or how many, without describing the noun it modifies.

HOW TO DISCOVER AN ADJECTIVE

247. Sometimes the noun may have several adjectives qualifying or modifying it; as,

- The beautiful, old elm tree shades the lawn.

The, beautiful, old and elm, all modify tree, telling something of the qualities or pointing out which tree we are speaking of. You can discover an adjective in a sentence by asking the questions, which, what kind, or how many; and the words that answer these questions will be the adjectives in the sentence. For example in this sentence:

- Those three immense factories employ thousands of men.

Factories is the noun, subject of the sentence. Which factory is indicated by the adjective those. How many factories is indicated by the adjective three. What kind of factories is indicated by the adjective immense. So we have three adjectives answering the three questions, which, what kind and how many.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences the adjectives are printed in italics. Study them carefully and determine which are qualifying and which are limiting adjectives. Note that the possessive nouns and possessive pronouns are not adjectives. Its in the phrases its cruel fangs and its savage claws, is a possessive pronoun, third person singular. In the last sentence beggar's, miser's, and Ingersoll's, are nouns in the possessive form.

- This terrible war in Europe is slaughtering the working-class.

- Gaunt famine follows war.

- A docile, meek, humble, working-class makes war possible.

- The shrieking shell snarls like a living thing; like some wild beast in ferocious glee it thrusts its cruel fangs in earth and rock and rends living flesh with its savage claws.

- Its fetid breath of poison powder scorches in the autumn winds.

- Shattered bones, torn flesh and flowing blood were mingled on the battlefield with broken swords and split rifles.

- The best modern rifles will force a bullet through five human bodies at a range of twelve hundred feet.

- The pitiful dead, slain in war, sleep under the solemn pines, the sad hemlock, the tearful willow and the embracing vines.

- A world without the beggar's outstretched palm, the miser's heartless stony stare, the piteous wail of want, the livid lips of lies, the cruel eyes of scorn, was Ingersoll's vision of the future.

QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES

248. Qualifying adjectives are also called descriptive adjectives because they describe the noun. They answer the questions which and what kind.

You remember we found in the beginning of our study of English, that words were grouped into classes according to the work which they do in the sentence, not according to the form of the word itself. For instance, we have already found that some words, without changing their form, may be used either as a noun or as a verb. Take the word oil, for instance. I may say, I oil the engine. Here I have used the word oil as a verb telling what I do. But I may say, The oil is gone. Here I have used the word oil as a noun, subject of the sentence. The part of speech to which a word belongs in the English language, always depends upon the work which it does in the sentence.

1. So we have nouns which are used as descriptive adjectives, for example the word oil, which we have found we can use either as a noun or a verb, may also be used as an adjective. For example; I may say, the oil tank. Here I have used the word oil as a descriptive adjective modifying the word tank. So also we may say, the oak tree, the stone curb, the earth wall. In these expressions oak, stone and earth are nouns used as descriptive adjectives.

2. We have descriptive adjectives derived from proper nouns, as French, English, American. These are called proper adjectives; and since all proper nouns must begin with a capital letter, these proper adjectives, also, should always begin with a capital letter.

3. We have also descriptive adjectives derived from verbs as active, talkative, movable, desirable, derived by the addition of suffixes to the verbs act, talk, move and desire.

LIMITING ADJECTIVES

249. Limiting adjectives are also divided into classes, the numerals, the demonstratives and the articles.

Numeral Adjectives

250. Numeral adjectives are those which limit nouns as to number or order. They are such adjectives as one, two, three, four, etc., and first, second and third, etc., as for example:

- Three men applied for work.

- The train ran at the rate of forty miles an hour.

- There have always been two classes in the world.

- The first martyr to anti-militarism was Jaures.

- The eighteenth day of March is the anniversary of the Paris Commune.

In these sentences the adjectives three, forty, two, first and eighteenth are all numeral adjectives. They limit the nouns which they modify as to number or order.

Adjectives that limit nouns as to number or order are called numeral adjectives. Numeral adjectives answer the question how many or in what order.

Demonstratives

251. We have also a class of adjectives which are used to point out some particular person or thing. These are called demonstrative adjectives. Demonstrate means literally to point out. So these adjectives point out from a number of things, one particular thing to our attention. These demonstrative adjectives are this, that, those, these, yonder, former, latter and same.

These and those are the plural forms of this and that. This and these are used to point out things near at hand. That and those are used to point out things more distant, as This is my book. These are my papers, meaning this book or these papers, close to me. By, That is my pencil and Those are my letters, I mean that pencil, and those letters, which are farther away from me.

Former and latter are used to show which of two things already mentioned is referred to, and to point out things in point of time, not of place. For example, we may say:

- We no longer observe the former customs, but rather prefer the latter.

- He did not like his former job but this latter job pleases him.

You understand from this that we have been discussing and describing two kinds of work, and that the first in point of time was unpleasant and the second pleasant.

The demonstrative adjective same refers to something of which we have just spoken, as for example, He has gone to work, I must do the same thing. These demonstrative adjectives answer the question which, so when you wish to discover a demonstrative in a sentence, ask the question which, and the answer will be the demonstrative adjective.

Exercise 2

1. This study is very interesting.

2. These comrades will stand by us.

3. That solution will never deceive the people.

4. Those books have opened our eyes.

5. Yonder battle appals the world.

6. Former investigations have had no results.

7. This latter decision has reversed the former.

8. The class struggle has persisted through the centuries; we are engaged in the same struggle.

Make sentences of your own containing these demonstrative adjectives.

ARTICLES

252. We have three adjectives which are used so commonly that we have put them in a class by themselves. These three little words are a, an and the, and we call them articles. The word article literally means a little joint or limb, and these three little words are so closely connected with the nouns with which they are used that they seem to be a part or joint or limb of the noun itself, and so we have called them articles.

A and an are called the indefinite articles because they point out an object in a very indefinite manner. The is called the definite article for it points out in a more definite way.

We use a before words beginning with a consonant sound, as a man, a tree, a book; and we use an before words beginning with a vowel sound, as an apple, an editor, an orange, an heir. In heir the h is silent, and we say an because the word begins with a vowel sound. A is used before words beginning with u because long u is equivalent in sound to a consonant, for the blending of the sounds of which long u is composed produces the initial sound of y, which is a consonant sound. For example, we say, a university, a useful work, etc., and not an university. Before words beginning with short u, use an, as, an upstart, etc.

In deciding whether to use a or an, watch the initial sound of the word, not the initial letter. If it is a vowel sound use an, if a consonant sound, use a.

Exercise 3

Underscore the correct article in the following sentences:

1. Bring me an—a apple.

2. He is a—an able orator.

3. A—an heir was born to the German King.

4. He built a—an house for his family.

5. He is an—a honest man.

6. He is a—an undertaker.

7. I had to take a—an upper berth.

8. He joined a—an union.

9. It is a—an unique book.

10. He is a—an unruly member of society.

11. He told a—an untruth.

12. He wears a—an uniform.

13. It is a—an honor to be chosen.

253. When a singular noun is modified by several adjectives, only one of the articles an or a must be used if the noun denotes but one object; but if the noun denotes more than one object the article must be repeated before each noun. For example, I say, A red, white and blue flag. You know I mean but one flag, containing the three colors, red, white and blue. But if I say, A red, a white and a blue flag, you know I mean three flags, one red, one white, and one blue.

Note the use of the article in the following sentences:

- He wears a black and white suit.

- He wears a black and a white suit.

- He sold a red and white cow.

- He sold a red and a white cow.

- He bought a gas and coal stove.

- He bought a gas and a coal stove.

The first sentences in each of the above series refers to only one object. The second sentences all refer to two objects.

254. There are some rules concerning the article the that it is well to know because we do not always say what we wish to say, if we do not observe these rules or customs of speech. For example, I say, The editor and publisher of this book is unknown. I have used the article the but once, and I mean that the editor and publisher is one person. But I may say, The editor and the publisher of this book are well known. In this sentence I have used the article the twice, the editor and the publisher, and I mean that the editor and the publisher are two different persons.

So when two or more nouns following each other denote the same person or thing, the article is not repeated, but when the nouns denote different persons or things, the article must be repeated before each noun. Be sure to use the proper form of the verb.

Note the following sentences and underscore the proper verb to complete the meaning:

- The secretary and treasurer were—was here.

- The secretary and the treasurer were—was elected.

- The singer and artist were—was with me.

- The singer and the artist were—was on the program.

Sometimes we have two things so closely associated in use that they may be considered as forming a single idea, so that we may use the article before the first one only. For example:

- The pen and ink is gone.

- He bought a horse and buggy.

- The bread and butter is on the plate.

INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES

255. You remember we found in the study of pronouns that we have interrogative pronouns which we use in asking questions when we do not know the name of the object concerning which we are asking. We also have adjectives which we use in asking questions when we do not know the number or quality of the object concerning which we are asking. For example:

- Which book did you enjoy most?

- What work are you doing now?

- What machine did you order?

Which and what are the interrogative adjectives in these sentences.

Interrogative adjectives are adjectives used in asking questions.

INDEFINITES

256. We have one more class of adjectives called indefinites.

An indefinite adjective is one that does not denote any particular person or thing.

All such adjectives as each, every, either, neither, some, any, many, much, few, all, both, no, none, several and certain are indefinite adjectives. We use them when we are not speaking of any particular person or thing, but are speaking in a broad, general sense and in an indefinite manner.

257. The interrogative adjectives are sometimes used in this indefinite way. They are sometimes used to modify nouns when a direct question is not asked, and they are then used, not as interrogative adjectives, but as indefinite adjectives. For example:

- He did not know which party to join.

- I have not learned what time he will go.

In these sentences which and what are not used to ask questions, but are used to describe an unknown object.

Exercise 4

All the words in italics are adjectives. Decide to which class each adjective belongs.

Note in this exercise the compound words used as adjectives, as: earth-born, self-made, new-lit, blood-rusted. Look up the meaning of these adjectives and see if you can use other adjectives in their places and keep the same meaning. Note the use of fellest.

Slavery, the earth-born Cyclops, fellest of the giant brood,

Sons of brutish Force and Darkness, who have drenched the earth with blood,

Famished in his self-made desert, blinded by our purer day,

Gropes in yet unblasted regions for his miserable prey;—

Shall we guide his gory fingers where our helpless children play?

They have rights who dare maintain them; we are traitors to our sires,

Smothering in their holy ashes Freedom's new-lit altar-fires;

Shall we make their creed our jailer? Shall we, in our haste to slay,

From the tombs of the old prophets steal the funeral lamps away

To light up the martyr-fagots round the prophets of to-day?

New occasions teach new duties; Time makes ancient good, uncouth;

They must upward still, and onward, who would keep abreast of Truth;

Lo, before us gleam her camp-fires! We ourselves must Pilgrims be,

Launch our Mayflower, and steer boldly through the desperate winter sea,

Nor attempt the Future's portal with the Past's blood-rusted key.

—Lowell.

Exercise 5

The following is from Oscar Wilde's story of The Young King. Oscar Wilde was a master of English, and if you have the opportunity, read all of this beautiful story and watch his use of adjectives. Mark the adjectives in this excerpt and use them in sentences of your own.

And as the young King slept he dreamed a dream, and this was his dream. He thought that he was standing in a long, low attic, amidst the whirr and clatter of many looms. The meager daylight peered in through the grated windows and showed him the gaunt figures of the weavers, bending over their cases. Pale, sickly-looking children were crouched on the huge crossbeams. As the shuttles dashed through the warp they lifted up the heavy battens, and when the shuttles stopped they let the battens fall and pressed the threads together. Their faces were pinched with famine, and their thin hands shook and trembled. Some haggard women were seated at a table, sewing. A horrible odor filled the place. The air was foul and heavy, and the walls dripped and streamed with damp.

The young King went over to one of the weavers and stood by him and watched him.

And the weaver looked at him angrily and said, "Why art thou watching me? Art thou a spy set on us by our master?"

"Who is thy master?" asked the young King.

"Our master!" cried the weaver, bitterly. "He is a man like myself. Indeed, there is but this difference between us—that he wears fine clothes while I go in rags, and that while I am weak from hunger he suffers not a little from overfeeding."

"The land is free," said the young King, "and thou art no man's slave."

"In war," answered the weaver, "the strong make slaves of the weak, and in peace the rich make slaves of the poor. We must work to live, and they give us such mean wages that we die. We toil for them all day long, and they heap up gold in their coffers, and our children fade away before their time, and the faces of those we love become hard and evil. We tread out the grapes, another drinks the wine. We sow the corn, and our own board is empty. We have chains, though no eye beholds them; and are slaves, though men call us free."

"Is it so with all?" he asked.

"It is so with all," answered the weaver, "with the young as well as with the old, with the women as well as with the men, with the little children as well as with those who are stricken in years. The merchants grind us down, and we must needs do their bidding. The priest rides by and tells his beads, and no man has care of us. Through our sunless lanes creeps Poverty with her hungry eyes, and Sin with his sodden face follows close behind her. Misery wakes us in the morning, and Shame sits with us at night. But what are these things to thee? Thou art not one of us. Thy face is too happy." And he turned away scowling, and threw the shuttle across the loom, and the young King saw that it was threaded with a thread of gold.

And a great terror seized upon him, and he said to the weaver, "What robe is this that thou art weaving?"

"It is the robe for the coronation of the young King," he answered; "What is that to thee?"

And the young King gave a loud cry and woke and lo! he was in his own chamber, and through the window he saw the great honey-colored moon hanging in the dusky air.

SPELLING

LESSON 14

You remember in the formation of plurals, we learned that words ending in y change y to i when es is added; as, lady, ladies; baby, babies; dry, dries, etc.

There are several rules concerning words ending in y, knowledge of which will aid us greatly in spelling.

1. Words ending in ie change the ie to y before ing to prevent a confusing number of vowels. For example, die, dying; lie, lying; tie, tying.

2. Words of more than one syllable ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into i before all suffixes except those beginning with i. For example:

happy,

happily,

happiness;

witty,

wittier,

wittiest;

satisfy,

satisfied,

satisfying;

envy,

enviable,

envying;

This exception is made for suffixes beginning with i, the most common of which is ing, to avoid having a confusing number of i's.

3. Most words ending in y preceded by a vowel retain the y before a suffix. For example:

destroy,

destroyer,

destroying,

buy,

buyer,

buying,

essay,

essayed,

essayist.

The following words are exception to this rule:

- laid,

- paid,

- said,

- daily,

- staid.

Make as many words as you can out of the words given in this week's spelling lesson by adding one or more of the following suffixes: er, est, ed, es, ing, ly, ness, ful, ment, al.

Monday

- Beauty

- Portray

- Deny

- Rare

- Multiply

Tuesday

- Mercy

- Bury

- Obey

- Lovely

- Envy

Wednesday

- Tie

- Defy

- Study

- Decry

- Crazy

Thursday

- Merry

- Silly

- Lusty

- Imply

- Day

Friday

- Dismay

- Duty

- Employ

- Satisfy

- Pretty

Saturday

- Pay

- Joy

- Journey

- Qualify

- Sorry

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 15

Dear Comrade:

In this week's lesson we are finishing the study of adjectives, which adds another part of speech to those which we have studied. We can see in the study of each additional part of speech how each part has its place in the expression of our ideas. We could not express ourselves fully if we lacked any of these parts of speech. Each one is not an arbitrary addition to our language but has come to us out of the need for it. We see that there are no arbitrary rules but in language, as in all things else, growing needs have developed more efficient tools. With these have grown up certain rules of action so we can have a common usage and system in our use of these tools. It has taken years of effort to accomplish this. The changes have been slow and gradual, and this language which we are studying is the finished product.

This slow development in the use of language, even in our own lives, makes us realize how many thousands of years it must have taken our primitive ancestors to reach a point where they could use the phonetic alphabet. We have found that at first they used simple aids to memory, as knotted strings and tally sticks. Then they began to draw pictures of things about them and so were able to communicate with one another by means of these pictures. When a man was going away from his cave and wanted to leave word for those who might come, telling them where he had gone and how soon he would return, he drew a picture of a man over the entrance with the arm extended in the direction in which he had gone. Then he drew another picture of a man in a sleeping position and also one of a man with both hands extended in the gesture which indicated many. These two pictures showed that he would be away over many nights. In some such rude manner as this, they were able to communicate with one another.

But man soon began to think, and he needed to express ideas concerning things of which he could not draw pictures. He could draw a picture of the sun, but how could he indicate light? How could he indicate the different professions in which men engaged, such as the farmer and priest, etc.?

He was forced to invent symbols or signs to express these ideas, so his writing was no longer a picture of some object, but he added to it symbols of abstract ideas. A circle which stood for the sun written with the crescent which stood for the moon, indicated light. The bee became a symbol of industry. An ostrich feather was a symbol of justice, because these feathers were supposed to be of equal length. A picture of a woman stood simply for a woman, but a picture of two women stood for strife, and three women stood for intrigue. These old ancestors of ours became wise quite early concerning some things. The symbol for a priest in the early Egyptian picture writing was a jackal. Perhaps not because he "devoured widows' houses," but because the jackal was a very watchful animal. The symbol for mother was a vulture because that bird was believed to nourish its young with its own blood.

It naturally required a good memory and a clear grasp of association to be able to read this sort of writing. It required many centuries for this slow development of written speech.

The development of language has been a marvelous growth and a wonderful heritage has come to us. Let us never be satisfied until we have a mastery of our language and find a way to express the ideas that surge within us. A mastery of these lessons will help us.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS

258. From our study of the adjective, we know that it is a word used with a noun to qualify or limit its meaning. But a great many times we find these adjectives used without the noun which they modify. As, for example, I may say, This is mine, and the adjective this is used alone without the noun which it modifies, and you are able to tell only by what I have been saying or by some action of mine to what I am referring when I say this.

When adjectives are used in this manner, they are used like pronouns—in place of a noun. So sometimes we find an adjective used with a noun, and sometimes used as a pronoun, in place of a noun; and since we name our parts of speech by the work which they do in the sentence, an adjective used in this way is not an adjective, but a pronoun or word used in place of a noun.

So these words are pronouns when they stand alone to represent things—when they are used in place of a noun. They are adjectives when they are used with a noun to limit or qualify the noun. For example, I may say, This tree is an elm, but that tree is an oak. This and that in this sentence are adjectives used to modify the noun tree. But I may say, This is an oak and that is an elm, and in this sentence this and that are used without a noun, they are used as pronouns.

259. Our being able to name every part of speech is not nearly so important as our being able to understand the functions of the different parts of speech and being able to use them correctly. But still it is well for us to be able to take a sentence and point out its different parts and tell what each part is and the function which it serves in the sentence. So sometimes in doing this we may find it difficult to tell whether certain words are adjectives or pronouns. We can distinguish between adjectives and pronouns by this rule:

When you cannot supply the noun which the adjective modifies, from the same sentence, then the word which takes the place of the noun is a pronoun, but if you can supply the omitted noun from the same sentence, then the word is used as an adjective. Thus, we do not say that the noun is understood unless it has already been used in the same sentence and is omitted to avoid repetition. We make each sentence a law unto itself and classify each word in the sentence according to what it does in its own sentence.

So if a noun does not occur in the same sentence with the word about which we are in doubt as to whether it is a pronoun or adjective, it is a pronoun or word used in place of a noun. For example, in the sentence, This book is good but that is better; book is understood after the word that and left out to avoid tiresome repetition of the word book. Therefore that is an adjective in this sentence. But if I say, This is good, but that is better; there is no noun understood, for there is no noun in the sentence which we can supply with this and that. Therefore in this sentence this and that are pronouns, used in place of the noun. And since this and that, when used as adjectives, are called demonstrative adjectives; therefore when this and that, these and those, and similar words, are used as pronouns they are called demonstrative pronouns.

260. Be careful not to confuse the possessive pronouns with adjectives. Possessive pronouns modify the nouns with which they are used, but they are not adjectives, they are possessive pronouns. My, his, her, its, our, your and their are all possessive pronouns, not adjectives. Also be careful not to confuse nouns in the possessive form with adjectives.

ADJECTIVES AS NOUNS

261. Sometimes you will find words, which we are accustomed to look upon as adjectives, used alone in the sentence without a noun which they modify. For example, we say, The strong enslave the weak. Here we have used the adjectives strong and weak without any accompanying noun. In sentences like this, these adjectives, being used as nouns, are classed as nouns. Remember, in your analysis of a sentence, that you name every word according to the work which it does in that sentence, so while these adjectives are doing the work of nouns, we will consider them as nouns.

These words are not used in the same manner in which demonstrative adjectives are used as pronouns. There is no noun omitted which might be inserted, but these adjectives are used rather to name a class. As, for example; when we say, The strong, The weak, we mean all those who are strong and all those who are weak, considered as a class. You will find adjectives used in this way quite often in your reading, and you will find that you use this construction very often in your ordinary speech. As, for example:

- The rich look down upon the poor.

- The wise instruct the ignorant.

Many examples will occur to you. Remember these adjectives are nouns when they do the work of nouns.

ADJECTIVES WITH PRONOUNS

262. Since pronouns are used in place of nouns, they may have modifiers, also, just as nouns do. So you will often find adjectives used to modify pronouns. As, for example; He, tired, weak and ill, was unable to hold his position. Here, tired, weak and ill are adjectives modifying the pronoun he.

263. We often find a participle used as an adjective with a pronoun. As, for example:

- She, having finished her work, went home.

- They, having completed the organization, left the city.

- He, having been defeated, became discouraged.

In these sentences, the participles, having finished, having completed, and having been defeated, are used as adjectives to modify the pronouns she, they and he.

COMPARISON

264. We have found that adjectives are a very important part of our speech for without them we could not describe the various objects about us and make known to others our ideas concerning their various qualities. But with the addition of these helpful words we can describe very fully the qualities of the things with which we come into contact. We soon find, however, that there are varying degrees of these qualities. Some objects possess them in slight degree, some more fully and some in the highest degree. So we must have some way of expressing these varying degrees in the use of our adjectives.

This brings us to the study of comparison of adjectives. Suppose I say:

- That orange is sweet, the one yonder is sweeter, but this one is sweetest.

I have used the adjective sweet expressing a quality possessed by oranges in three different forms, sweet, sweeter and sweetest. This is the change in the form of adjectives to show different degrees of quality. This change is called comparison, because we use it when we compare one thing with another in respect to some quality which they possess, but possess in different degrees.

The form of the adjective which expresses a simple quality, as sweet, is called the positive degree. That which expresses a quality in a greater degree, as sweeter, is called the comparative degree. That which expresses a quality in the greatest degree, as sweetest, is called the superlative degree.

265. Comparison is the change of form of an adjective to denote different degrees of quality.

There are three degrees of comparison, positive, comparative and superlative.

The positive degree of an adjective denotes simple quality.

The comparative degree denotes a higher degree of a quality.

The superlative degree denotes the highest degree of a quality.

266. Most adjectives of one syllable and many adjectives of two syllables regularly add er to the positive to form the comparative degree, and est to the positive to form the superlative degree, as:

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

sweet

sweeter

sweetest

cold

colder

coldest

soft

softer

softest

brave

braver

bravest

clear

clearer

clearest

267. Adjectives ending in y change y to i and add er and est to form the comparative and superlative degree, as:

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

busy

busier

busiest

lazy

lazier

laziest

sly

slier

sliest

witty

wittier

wittiest

268. Many adjectives cannot be compared by this change in the word itself, since the addition of er and est would make awkward or ill-sounding words. Hence we must employ another method to form the comparison of this sort of words. To say, beautiful, beautifuller, beautifullest, is awkward and does not sound well. So we say beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful.

Many adjectives form the comparative and superlative degree by using more and most with the simple form of the adjective, as:

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

beautiful

more beautiful

most beautiful

thankful

more thankful

most thankful

sensitive

more sensitive

most sensitive

wonderful

more wonderful

most wonderful

269. Adjectives of two syllables, to which er and est are added to form the comparison, are chiefly those ending in y or le, such as:

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

happy

happier

happiest

noble

nobler

noblest

steady

steadier

steadiest

feeble

feebler

feeblest

able

abler

ablest

witty

wittier

wittiest

270. Some adjectives, few in number, but which we use very often, are irregular in their comparison. The most important of these are as follows: (It would be well to memorize these.)

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

good

better

best

well

bad

worse

worst

ill

much

more

most

many

little

less

least

late

later

latest

latter

last

far

farther

farthest

(up) adv.

upper

uppermost

(in) adv.

inner

innermost

DESCENDING COMPARISON

271. The change in form of adjectives in the positive, comparative and superlative shows that one object has more of a quality than others with which it is compared. But we also wish at times to express the fact that one object has less of the quality than is possessed by others with which it is compared; so we have what we may call the descending comparison, by means of phrases formed by using less and least instead of more and most. Using less with the positive degree means a degree less than the positive, while using least expresses the lowest degree. For example:

Descending Comparison

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

beautiful

less beautiful

least beautiful

intelligent

less intelligent

least intelligent

sensitive

less sensitive

least sensitive

thankful

less thankful

least thankful

PARTICIPLES AS ADJECTIVES

272. You remember, when we studied the participle, that we found it was called a participle because it partook of the nature of two or more parts of speech. For example; in the sentence, The singing of the birds greeted us; singing is a participle derived from the verb sing, and is used as a noun, the subject of the verb greeted.

But participles are used not only as nouns; they may also be used as adjectives. For example; we may say, The singing birds greeted us. Here the participle singing describes the birds, telling what kind of birds greeted us, and is used as an adjective modifying the noun birds.

You will recall that we found there were two forms of the participle, the present participle and the past participle. The present participle is formed by adding ing to the root form of the verb; and the past participle in regular verbs is formed by adding d or ed to the root form, and in irregular verbs by a change in the verb form itself. These two simple forms of participles are often used as adjectives.

273. The present participle is almost always active; that is, it refers to the actor. As, for example; Vessels, carrying soldiers, are constantly arriving. Here the present participle carrying describes the noun vessels, and yet retains its function as a verb and has an object, soldiers. So it partakes of two parts of speech, the verb and the adjective.

274. The past participle, when used alone, is almost always passive, for it refers not to the actor, but to what is acted upon, thus:

- The army, beaten but not conquered, prepared for a siege.

In this sentence beaten is the past participle of the irregular verb beat, and conquered is the past participle of the regular verb conquer, and both modify the noun army, but refer to it, not as the actor, but as the receiver of the action. Hence, the past participle is also the passive participle.

Note in the following sentences the use of the present and past participle as adjectives:

- A refreshing breeze came from the hills.

- They escaped from the burning building.

- Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, onward through life he goes.

- The man, defeated in his purpose, gave up in despair.

- The child, driven in its youth to work, is robbed of the joy of childhood.

- The army, forced to retreat, destroyed all in its path.

- The children, neglected by society, grow up without their rightful opportunities.

Exercise 1

The adjectives and participles used as adjectives in the following sentences are printed in italics. Determine which adjectives are capable of comparison, and whether they are compared by adding er or est, or by the use of more and most.

In a community regulated by laws of demand and supply, but protected from open violence, the persons who become rich are, generally speaking, industrious, resolute, proud, covetous, prompt, methodical, sensible, unimaginative, insensitive and ignorant. The persons who remain poor are the entirely foolish, the entirely wise, the idle, the reckless, the humble, the thoughtful, the dull, the imaginative, the sensitive, the well-informed, the improvident, the irregularly and impulsively wicked, the clumsy knave, the open thief, and the entirely merciful, just and godly persons.—Ruskin.

PARTICIPLE PHRASES

275. If you will refer now to Lesson 9 you will find that we studied in that lesson concerning participle phrases; that is, several words used as a participle. We found that these participle phrases may also be used as nouns; as, for example:

- His having joined the union caused him to lose his position.

Having joined is here a participle phrase used as a noun, subject of the verb caused. Participle phrases may also be used as adjectives.

You remember that we had four participle phrases, as follows:

- Present perfect, active, having called.

- Present perfect, passive, having been called.

- Progressive, active, having been calling.

- Progressive, passive, being called.

These participle phrases are used as adjectives to describe and modify nouns, thus:

- The soldier, having joined his comrades, fought in the trenches.

- The nurse, having been watching for days, was nearly exhausted.

The passive phrases also are used as adjectives, thus:

- The woman, having been hired by the manager, went to work.

- The man, being attacked, fought bravely.

Here the participle phrases having been hired and being attacked are used as adjectives to modify the nouns woman and man.

Use the participles and participle phrases of the verbs see and obey in sentences of your own.

USES OF ADJECTIVES

276. In our use of adjectives, we find it convenient to use them in several different ways. The most common use is closely connected with the noun as a modifying word, seeming in a sense almost a part of the noun; as in the sentence, These brave men have bequeathed to us splendid victories. In this sentence these and brave are easily discovered to be adjectives, being used in such close connection with the noun.

But sometimes we find the adjectives a little farther away from the noun which it describes, and then it becomes a little more difficult to find. You will recall, in our study of the copulative verb be, that we found it was simply a connecting word, connecting that which followed the verb with its subject. So we often find an adjective used in the predicate with a copulative verb showing what is asserted of the subject. When an adjective is used in this way, it modifies the subject just as much as if it were directly connected by being placed immediately before the noun. For example:

- The lesson was long and difficult.

Long and difficult are used in the predicate after the copulative verb was, but are used to modify the subject lesson just as much as though we said instead, It was a long and difficult lesson. So watch carefully for adjectives used with the copulative verb be in all its forms, am, is, are, was, were; and the phrases, has been, will be, must be, etc.

277. You may find adjectives also used following the noun. As, for example: The man, cool and resolute, awaited the attack. Cool and resolute are adjectives modifying the noun man, but they follow the noun, instead of being placed before it.

COMMON ERRORS

278. There are a number of common errors which we make in comparison, which we should be careful to avoid.

1. A number of adjectives cannot be compared for they in themselves express the highest degree of quality, so they have no shades of meaning and will not admit of comparison. For example: full, empty, level, round, square. If a thing is full or empty or level or round or square, it cannot be more full, or more empty, or more level, or more round, or more square. So do not compare adjectives that already express the highest degree of a quality. Also such words as supreme, eternal, and infallible, cannot be compared for they also express the highest degree of quality.

2. Do not use more with the comparative form made by using er, or most with the superlative form, made by using est. For example: do not say, They cannot be more happier than they are. Say, They cannot be happier; or They cannot be more happy. Use either form but never both. Do not say, That is the most wisest plan. Say either, That is the wisest plan; or That is the most wise plan, but never use both forms. Never use most with a superlative form.

3. Do not use the superlative form in comparing two objects. The superlative form is used only when more than two are compared. For example; do not say, He is the smallest of the two. Say, He is the smaller of the two. Which is the largest end? is incorrect. Which is the larger end? is correct. Which is the oldest, John or Henry? is also incorrect. This should be, Which is the older, John or Henry? Use the comparative form always when comparing two objects.

4. In stating a comparison, avoid comparing a thing with itself. For example; New York is larger than any city in the United States. In this sentence, when you say any city in the United States, you are including New York; so you are really comparing New York with itself, and you are saying that New York is larger than itself. You should have said, New York is larger than any other city in the United States; or, New York is the largest city in the United States. When you compare an object with all others of its kind be sure that the word other follows the comparative word than.

5. When an adjective denoting one or more than one modifies a noun, the adjective and the noun must agree in number. For example; The house is 30 foot square. Thirty denotes more than one, so a plural noun should be used, and this sentence should be, The house is 30 feet square. We are traveling at the rate of 40 mile an hour. This should be, We are traveling at the rate of 40 miles an hour.

6. Only two adjectives, this and that change their form when modifying a plural noun. These and those are the plural forms of this and that. So remember always to use this and that with singular nouns and these and those with plural nouns. For example; do not say, These kind of people will never join us. You should say, This kind of people will never join us. Or, Those sort of flowers grows easily. You should say, That sort of flowers grows easily.

7. Place your adjectives where there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Put the adjective with the noun which it modifies. For example; do not say, a fresh bunch of flowers, a new pair of shoes, a salt barrel of pork, an old box of clothes, a cold cup of water, a new load of hay. Put the adjective with the noun which it modifies, and say, a bunch of fresh flowers, a pair of new shoes, a barrel of salt pork, a box of old clothes, a cup of cold water, a load of new hay.

8. Adjectives are usually placed before the nouns they qualify, but sometimes, especially in poetry or in the use of participles, they follow the nouns. They should not, however, be placed too far away from the noun which they modify or be unnecessarily separated from the noun. Where there are two or more adjectives used to qualify the same noun, place nearest the noun the adjective most closely connected with the object described and place farthest from the noun the adjective least closely connected with the noun. If they are all of the same rank, place them where they will sound best, usually according to their length, naming the shortest adjective first.

Correct the following sentences by arranging the adjectives in the proper order:

- The summer sky was a blue, soft, beautiful sky.

- He bought a brown, fine, big horse.

- A gold, beautiful, expensive watch was given her.

- The new, beautiful apartment building is on the corner.

- He advertised for a young, intelligent, wide awake man.

9. Never use them as an adjective. Them is a pronoun. One of the worst mistakes which we can make is to use such phrases as them things, them men, them books. Say, those things, those men, those books.

10. Do not use less for the comparative form of few. The comparative form of few is fewer. Less refers only to quantity, fewer to number. For example:

- He raised less grain this year than last, because he has fewer horses now than he had then.

- He uses fewer words because he has less to say.

- There are but few people here today; there were still fewer (not less) yesterday.

Exercise 2

Correct the adjectives in this exercise:

1. Hand me the little knife.

2. He claims to be more infallible than anyone else.

3. Mary is the oldest of the two.

4. He was the bestest boy in school.

5. The barn is forty foot long.

6. Yonder is a happy crowd of children.

7. Which is the largest end?

8. I found the bestest book.

9. This is the most principal rule.

10. Give me a cold cup of water.

11. These kind of books will not do.

12. Give me them books.

13. Who is the tallest, you or John?

Exercise 3

Mark all the adjectives in this poem. Note especially the participles used as adjectives.

THE COLLECTION

I passed the plate in church.

There was a little silver, but the crisp bank-notes heaped themselves up high before me;

And ever as the pile grew, the plate became warmer and warmer, until it fairly burned my fingers, and a smell of scorching flesh rose from it, and I perceived that some of the notes were beginning to smolder and curl, half-browned, at the edges.

And then I saw through the smoke into the very substance of the money, and I beheld what it really was: I saw the stolen earnings of the poor, the wide margin of wages pared down to starvation;

I saw the underpaid factory girl eking out her living on the street, and the over-worked child, and the suicide of the discharged miner; I saw the poisonous gases from great manufactories, spreading disease and death;

I saw despair and drudgery filling the dram-shop; I saw rents screwed out of brother men for permission to live on God's land;

I saw men shut out from the bosom of the earth and begging for the poor privilege to work, in vain, and becoming tramps and paupers and drunkards and lunatics, and crowding into almshouses, insane asylums and prisons;

I saw ignorance and vice and crime growing rank in stifling, filthy slums;

I saw shoddy cloth and adulterated food and lying goods of all kinds, cheapening men and women, and vulgarizing the world; I saw hideousness extending itself from coal-mine and foundry over forest and river and field;

I saw money grabbed from fellow grabbers and swindled from fellow swindlers, and underneath the workman forever spinning it out of his vitals;

I saw the laboring world, thin and pale and bent and care-worn and driven, pouring out this tribute from its toil and sweat into the laps of the richly dressed men and women in the pews, who only glanced at them to shrink from them with disgust;

I saw all this, and the plate burned my fingers so that I had to hold it first in one hand and then in the other; and I was glad when the parson in his white robes took the smoking pile from me on the chancel steps and, turning about, lifted it up and laid it on the altar.

It was an old-time altar, indeed, for it bore a burnt offering of flesh and blood—a sweet savor unto the Moloch whom these people worship with their daily round of human sacrifices.

The shambles are in the temple as of yore, and the tables of the money-changers waiting to be overturned.

—Ernest Crosby.

SPELLING

LESSON 15

There is a class of words having the sound of long e, represented by the diphthong ie, and another class having the same sound represented by ei. It is a matter of perplexity at times to determine whether one of these words should be spelled with ie or ei. Here is a little rhyme which you will find a valuable aid to the memory in spelling these words:

- When the letter c you spy,

- Put the e before the i.

For example, in such words as deceit, receive and ceiling, the spelling is ei. On the other hand, when the diphthong is not preceded by the letter c, the spelling is ie, as in grief, field, siege, etc.

There are a few exceptions to this rule, such as either, neither, leisure, seize and weird. Most words, however, conform to the rule—when preceded by c, ei should be used; when preceded by any other letter, ie.

Observe that this rule applies only when there is a diphthong having the sound of long e. When the two letters do not have the sound of long e, as in ancient, the rule does not apply.

Monday

- Deceive

- Belief

- Conceive

- Brief

- Ceiling

Tuesday

- Field

- Receive

- Piece

- Chief

- Leisure

Wednesday

- Receipt

- Wield

- Weird

- Thief

- Perceive

Thursday

- Deceit

- Yield

- Grief

- Seize

- Conceit

Friday

- Relieve

- Neither

- Liege

- Shield

- Niece

Saturday

- Relief

- Achievement

- Reprieve

- Lien

- Siege

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 16

Dear Comrade:

We have been tracing the development of written speech in order that we might have a clearer understanding of our own language. We have found how our earliest ancestors communicated with each other by signs and an articulate speech that was probably a little better than that of some animals of today. They gradually developed this articulate speech and then began to have need for some form of written speech. That which distinguishes man from the animals primarily is his power to remember and to associate one idea with another. From this comes his ability to reason concerning the connection of these ideas. Without this power of associative memory we would not be able to reason. If you could not recall the things that happened yesterday and had not the power of imagination concerning the things that may happen tomorrow, your reasoning concerning today would not be above that of the animals.

So man soon found it necessary to have some way of recalling accurately, in a manner that he could depend upon, the things that happened yesterday and the day before and still farther back in time. So that his first step was the invention of simple aids to memory such as the knotted strings and tally sticks. Then he began to draw pictures of the objects about him which he could perceive by the five senses, the things which he could see and hear and touch and taste and smell.

But man, the Thinker, began to develop and he began to have ideas about things which he could not see and hear and touch and taste and smell. He began to think of abstract ideas such as light and darkness, love and hate, and if he was to have written speech he must have symbols which would express these ideas. So we have found that he used pictures of the things he perceived with his five senses to symbolize some of his abstract ideas, as for example; a picture of the sun and moon to represent light; the bee to symbolize industry; the ostrich feather to represent justice. But as his ideas began to develop you can readily see that in the course of time there were not enough symbols to go around and this sort of written speech became very confusing and very difficult to read.

Necessity is truly the mother of invention, and so this need of man forced him to invent something entirely new—something which had been undreamed of before. He began now to use pictures which were different in sense but the names of which had the same sound. You can find an example of this same thing on the Children's Puzzle Page in the rebus which is given for the children to solve. As for example: A picture of an eye, a saw, a boy, a swallow, a goose and a berry, and this would stand for the sentence, I saw a boy swallow a gooseberry.

Perhaps you have used the same idea in some guessing game where a mill, a walk and a key stands for Milwaukee. And so we have a new form of picture writing. Notice in this that an entirely new idea has entered in, for the picture may not stand for the whole word but may stand for one syllable of the word as in the example given above. The mill stands for one syllable, walk for another and key for another. This was a great step for it meant the division of the word into various sounds represented by the syllables.

What a new insight it gives us into life when we realize that not only our bodies but the environment in which we live, the machines with which we work and even the language which we use has been a product of man's own effort. Man has developed these things for himself through a constant and steady evolution. It makes us feel that we are part of one stupendous whole; we belong to the class which has done the work of the world and accomplished these mighty things. The same blood flows in us; the same power belongs to us. Truly, with this idea, we can stand erect and look the whole world in the face and demand the opportunity to live our own lives to the full.

Yours for Freedom,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

WORDS ADDED TO VERBS

279. We have just finished the study of adjectives and we have found that adjectives are words added to nouns to qualify or to limit their meaning. Without this class of words it would be impossible for us to express all of our ideas, for we would be at a loss to describe the objects about us. Adjectives enable us to name the qualities or tell the number of the objects with which we come in contact.

The verb, we have found, expresses the action of these objects; in other words, the verb tells what things do. So with adjectives and verbs we can describe the objects named by the nouns and tell what they do. For example, I may say, Men work. Here I have used simply a noun and a verb; then I may add various adjectives to this and say, Strong, industrious, ambitious men work. By the use of these adjectives, I have told you about the kind of men who work; but I have said nothing about the action expressed in the verb work. I may want to tell you how they work and when they work; where they work and how much; in other words, describe fully the action expressed in the verb work, so I say:

- The men work busily.

- The men work late.

- The men work well.

- The men work inside.

- The men work hard.

- The men work here.

- The men work now.

- The men work more.

Words like busily, hard, late, here, well, now, inside, and more, show how, when, where and how much the men work.

We could leave off these words and still have a sentence, since the other words make sense without them, but these words describe the action expressed in the verb.

Words used in this way are called adverbs because they are added to verbs to make our meaning more definite, very much as adjectives are added to nouns.

280. The word adverb means, literally, to the verb, and one would suppose from this name that the adverb was strictly a verb modifier, but an adverb is used to modify other words as well. An adverb may be used to modify an adjective; for example, we might say: The man was very busy. This lesson is too long. Here very and too are added to the adjectives busy and long to qualify their meaning.

281. You remember in the comparison of adjectives, we used the words more and most to make the comparative and superlative degrees. Here more and most are adverbs used with the adjectives to qualify their meaning. Adverbs used in this way will always answer the question, how much, how long, etc. In the sentence, The man is very busy, very is used to answer the question how busy. And in the sentence, The lesson is too long, the adverb too answers the question how long.

An adverb is also added to another adverb sometimes to answer the question how. For example; we say, The man works very hard. Here the adverb hard tells how the man works and very modifies the adverb hard, and answers the question how hard. So we have our definition of an adverb:

282. An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

Remember that adjectives are used only with nouns or pronouns, but the adverb may be used with a verb or an adjective or another adverb. You remember that we had in our first lesson, as the definition of a word, that, a word is a sign of an idea. The idea is a part of a complete thought. See how all of these various words represent ideas, and each does its part to help us express our thoughts.

HOW TO TELL ADVERBS

283. We need not have much difficulty in always being able to tell which words in a sentence are adverbs, for they will always answer one of the following questions: How? When? Where? Why? How long? How often? How much? How far? or How little? etc. Just ask one of these questions and the word that answers it is the adverb in your sentence. Take the following sentence:

- He always came down too rapidly.

The word always answers the question when. So always is an adverb, describing the time of the action expressed in the verb came—He always came. Down answers the question where. So down is the adverb describing the place of the action. Rapidly answers the question how, and is the adverb describing the manner of the action. Too also answers the question how, and modifies the adverb rapidly.

Exercise 1

Underscore the adverbs in the following sentences and tell which word they modify:

1. He writes correctly.

2. She answered quickly.

3. A very wonderful future awaits us.

4. You should not speak so hastily.

5. You can speak freely here.

6. He could never wait patiently.

7. We very often make mistakes.

8. She very seldom goes there.

9. He usually walks very rapidly.

10. I have read the lesson quite carefully.

11. We would willingly and cheerfully give our all for the cause.

12. He frequently comes here but I do not expect him today.

13. If we work diligently and faithfully we will soon learn to speak correctly and fluently.

14. I am almost sure I can go there tomorrow.

15. It was more beautifully painted than the other.

16. We eagerly await the news from the front.

17. He always gladly obeyed his father.

18. She spoke quite simply and met with a very enthusiastic reception.

19. The difficulty can be easily and readily adjusted.

Exercise 2

Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify verbs:

- slowly

- here

- now

- gently

- loudly

- never

- soon

- carefully

- nobly

- down

- seldom

- easily

Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify adjectives:

- quite

- very

- more

- too

- most

- less

- nearly

- so

Use the following adverbs in sentences to modify adverbs:

- too

- very

- quite

- less

- more

- most

- least

- so

CLASSES OF ADVERBS

284. There are a good many adverbs in our language, yet they may be divided, according to their meaning, into six principal classes:

1. Adverbs of time. These answer the question when, and are such adverbs as now, then, soon, never, always, etc.

2. Adverbs of place. These answer the question where, and are such adverbs as here, there, yonder, down, above, below, etc.

3. Adverbs of manner. These answer the question how, and are such adverbs as well, ill, thus, so, slowly, hastily, etc.

4. Adverbs of degree. These answer the questions how much, how little, how far, etc., and are such adverbs as much, very, almost, scarcely, hardly, more, quite, little, etc.

5. Adverbs of cause. These answer the question why, and are such adverbs as therefore, accordingly, hence, etc.

6. Adverbs of number. These are such adverbs as first, second, third, etc.

Exercise 3

In the following sentences there are adverbs of each class used. Find the adverbs of the different classes.

1. We shall always be found in the forefront of the struggle.

2. It is much more effective to train the young.

3. He came first and remained through the entire program.

4. It is pleasant to know that we have done well.

5. Our comrades are fighting yonder in the trenches.

6. Therefore we shall never acknowledge defeat.

7. Come down and discuss the matter with us.

8. We would soon be able to agree if we understood the facts.

9. Study your lessons slowly and carefully.

10. He was scarcely able to tell his story.

11. Accordingly I am sending you full particulars of the plan.

12. He came third in the ranks.

INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS

285. The adverbs how, when, where, why, whither, whence, etc., are used in asking questions, and when they are used in this way they are called interrogative adverbs. For example:

- How did it happen?

- Where are you going?

- Whence came he?

- When did he come?

- Why did you do it?

- Whither are you going?

These adverbs, how, when, where, why, whence and whither, are used in these sentences to modify the verbs and ask the questions concerning the time or place or manner of action expressed in the verb.

How may also be used as an interrogative adverb modifying an adjective or another adverb. For example:

- How late did he stay?

- How large is the house?

In the first sentence, the adverb how modifies the adverb late, and introduces the question. In the second sentence how modifies the adjective large and introduces the question.

Exercise 4

Write sentences containing the interrogative adverbs how, when, where and why, to modify verbs and ask simple questions.

Write sentences using the interrogative adverb how to modify an adjective and an adverb and to introduce a question.

ADVERBS OF MODE

286. There are some adverbs which scarcely fall into any of the above classes and cannot be said to answer any of these questions. They are such adverbs as indeed, certainly, fairly, truly, surely, perhaps and possibly. These adverbs really modify the entire sentence, in a way, and are used to show how the statement is made,—whether in a positive or negative way or in a doubtful way. For example:

- Surely you will not leave me.

- Truly I cannot understand the matter as you do.

- Perhaps he knows no better.

- Indeed, I cannot go with you.

Here, these adverbs, truly, surely, perhaps and indeed, show the manner in which the entire statement is made; so they have been put in a class by themselves and called adverbs of mode. Mode means literally manner, but these are not adverbs that express manner of action, like slowly or wisely or well or ill. They express rather the manner in which the entire statement is made, and so really modify the whole sentence.

PHRASE ADVERBS

287. We have certain little phrases which we have used so often that they have come to be used and regarded as single adverbs. They are such phrases as of course, of late, for good, of old, at all, at length, by and by, over and over, again and again, through and through, hand in hand, ere long, in vain, to and fro, up and down, as usual, by far, at last, at least, in general, in short, etc. These words which we find used so often in these phrases we may count as single adverbs.

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

288. Sometimes the same word may be used either as an adjective or as an adverb, and you may have some difficulty in telling whether it is an adjective or an adverb. Some of these words are: better, little, late, far, hard, further, first, last, long, short, much, more and high. For example:

- The late news verifies our statement.

- The man came late to his work.

In the first sentence, the word late is used as an adjective modifying the noun news. In the second sentence, the word late is used as an adverb to modify the verb came.

289. You can always distinguish between adjectives and adverbs by this rule: Adjectives modify only nouns and pronouns, and the one essential characteristic of the adverb, as a limiting word, is that it is always joined to some other part of speech than a noun. An adverb may modify a verb, adjective or other adverb, but never a noun or pronoun.

You recall the rule which we have made the very foundation of our study: namely, that every word is classified in the sentence according to the work which it does in that sentence. So a word is an adjective when it limits or modifies or qualifies a noun or pronoun; a word is an adverb when it qualifies any part of speech other than a noun or pronoun, either a verb or an adjective or an adverb, or even an entire sentence, as is the case with adverbs of mode.

290. Many adverbs are regularly made from nouns and adjectives by prefixes and suffixes. Adverbs are made from adjectives chiefly by adding the suffix ly, or by changing ble to bly. For example: honestly, rarely, dearly, ably, nobly, feebly. But all words that end in ly are not adverbs. Some adjectives end in ly also, as, kingly, courtly, etc. The only way we can determine to which class a word belongs is by its use in the sentence.

Exercise 5

In the following sentences, tell whether the words printed in italics are used as adjectives or as adverbs: also note the words ending in ly. Some are adverbs and some adjectives.

1. The boy was very little.

2. It was a little early to arrive.

3. It was a hard lesson.

4. She works hard every day.

5. I read the first book.

6. I read the book first then gave it to him.

7. He went to a high mountain.

8. The eagle flew high in the air.

9. We saw clearly the lovely picture.

10. He is a wonderfully jolly man.

11. His courtly manner failed when he saw his homely bride.

12. He speaks slowly and clearly.

13. They are very cleanly in their habits.

NOUNS AS ADVERBS

291. Words that are ordinarily used as nouns, are sometimes used as adverbs. These are the nouns that denote time, distance, measure of value or direction. They are added to verbs and adjectives to denote the definite time at which a thing took place, or to denote the extent of time or distance and the measure of value, of weight, number or age. They are sometimes used to indicate direction. For example:

- They were gone a year.

- He talked an hour.

- They will return next week.

- They went south for the winter.

- They traveled 100 miles.

- The wheat is a foot high.

- The man weighed 200 pounds.

In these sentences, the nouns, year, miles, hour, foot, week, pounds and south are used as adverbs. Remember every word is classified according to the work which it does in the sentence.

Exercise 6

Mark the adverbs in the following poem and determine what words they modify:

THE BRIDGE OF SIGHS

One more Unfortunate

Weary of breath,

Rashly importunate,

Gone to her death!

Take her up tenderly,

Lift her with care;

Fashion'd so slenderly,

Young, and so fair!

Look at her garments

Clinging like cerements;

Whilst the wave constantly

Drips from her clothing;

Take her up instantly,

Loving, not loathing.

Touch her not scornfully;

Think of her mournfully,

Gently and humanly;

Not of the stains of her—

All that remains of her

Now is pure womanly.

Make no deep scrutiny

Into her mutiny

Rash and undutiful;

Past all dishonor,

Death has left on her

Only the beautiful.

* * * * * * *

Alas! for the rarity

Of Christian charity

Under the sun!

O! it was pitiful!

Near a whole city full,

Home, she had none.

* * * * * * *

The bleak wind of March

Made her tremble and shiver;

But not the dark arch,

Or the black flowing river:

Mad from life's history

Glad to death's mystery

Swift to be hurled—

Anywhere, anywhere

Out of the world!

In she plunged boldly,

No matter how coldly

The rough river ran;

Over the brink of it,—

Picture it, think of it,

Dissolute Man!

Lave in it, drink of it,

Then, if you can!

Take her up tenderly,

Lift her with care;

Fashion'd so slenderly,

Young and so fair!

Ere her limbs frigidly

Stiffen too rigidly,

Decently, kindly,

Smooth and compose them;

And her eyes, close them,

Staring so blindly!

Dreadfully staring

Thro' muddy impurity,

As when with the daring

Last look of despairing

Fix'd on futurity.

Perishing gloomily,

Spurr'd by contumely,

Cold inhumanity,

Burning insanity,

Into her rest.

Cross her hands humbly

As if praying dumbly,

Over her breast!

Owning her weakness,

Her evil behavior,

And leaving, with meekness,

Her sins to her Saviour!

—Thomas Hood.

SPELLING

LESSON 16

The English language is truly a melting pot, into which have been thrown words from almost every language under the sun. This makes our spelling very confusing many times. Because of this also, we have in our language, words which have the same sound but different meaning, having come into the language from different sources. These words are called homonyms.

Homonyms are words having the same sound but different meaning. For example:

- Plane, plain;

- write, right.

Synonyms are words which have the same meaning. For example:

- Allow, permit;

- lazy, idle.

Our spelling lesson for this week contains a list of most of the commonly used homonyms. Look up the meaning in the dictionary and use them correctly in sentences. You will note that in some instances there are three different words which have the same sound, but different meanings.

Notice especially principal and principle. Perhaps there are no two words which we use frequently which are so confused in their spelling. Principle is a noun. Principal is an adjective. You can remember the correct spelling by remembering that adjective begins with a. Principal, the adjective, is spelled with an a, pal.

Notice also the distinction between two, to and too. Look these up carefully, for mistakes are very often made in the use of these three words. Also notice the words no and know and here and hear.

Monday

- Buy—by

- Fair—fare

- Meat—meet

- Our—hour

- Pain—pane

Tuesday

- Deer—dear

- Hear—here

- New—knew

- No—know

- Peace—piece

Wednesday

- Two—to—too

- Pair—pare—pear

- Birth—berth

- Ore—oar

- Ought—aught

Thursday

- Seen—scene

- Miner—minor

- Aloud—allowed

- Stare—stair

- Would—wood

Friday

- Bear—bare

- Ascent—assent

- Sight—site—cite

- Rain—reign—rein

- Rote—wrote

Saturday

- Great—grate

- Foul—fowl

- Least—leased

- Principle—principal

- Sale—sail

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 17

Dear Comrade:

We are finishing in this lesson the study of a very important part of speech. Adverbs are a necessary part of our vocabulary, and most of us need a greater supply than we at present possess. We usually have a few adverbs and adjectives in our vocabulary which are continually overworked. Add a few new ones to your vocabulary this week.

Do not slight the exercises in these lessons. The study of the lesson is only the beginning of the theoretical knowledge. You do not really know a thing until you put it into practice. You may take a correspondence course on how to run an automobile but you can not really know how to run a machine until you have had the practical experience. There is only one way to become expert in the use of words and that is to use them. Every day try to talk to some one who thinks and reads. While talking watch their language and your own. When a word is used that you do not fully understand, look it up at your very first opportunity and if you like the word use it a number of times until it has become your word.

We have been following in these letters, which are our weekly talks together, the development of the alphabet. It is really a wonderful story. It brings to us most vividly the struggle of the men of the past. Last week we found how they began to use symbols to express syllables, parts of a word. We found that this was a great step in advance. Do you not see that this was not an eye picture but an ear picture? The symbol did not stand for the picture of the object it named but each symbol stood for the sound which composed part of the word.

After a while it dawned upon some one that all the words which man used were expressed by just a few sounds. We do not know just when this happened but we do know that it was a wonderful step in advance. Cumbersome pictures and symbols could be done away with now. The same idea could be expressed by a few signs which represented the few sounds which were used over and over again in all words. Let us not fail to realize what a great step in advance this was. These symbols represented sounds. The appeal was through the ear gate of man, not through the eye gate.

Thus came about the birth of the alphabet, one of the greatest and most momentous triumphs of the human mind. Because of this discovery, we can now form thousands of combinations expressing all our ideas with only twenty-three or twenty-four symbols,—letters that represent sounds. Since we have at our command all of this rich fund of words, let us not be content to possess only a few for ourselves. Add a word daily to your vocabulary and you will soon be surprised at the ease and fluency of your spoken and written speech; and with this fluency in speech will come added power in every part of your life.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

292. You will recall that we found that adjectives change in form to show different degrees of quality. A few adverbs are compared the same as adjectives. Some form the comparative and superlative degree in the regular way, just as adjectives, by adding er and est; for example:

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

soon

sooner

soonest

late

later

latest

often

oftener

oftenest

early

earlier

earliest

fast

faster

fastest

293. Most adverbs form their comparative and superlative by the use of more and most or less and least, just as adjectives do; for example:

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

clearly

more clearly

most clearly

nobly

more nobly

most nobly

ably

more ably

most ably

truly

more truly

most truly

Or, in the descending comparison:

clearly

less clearly

least clearly

nobly

less nobly

least nobly

ably

less ably

least ably

truly

less truly

least truly

294. The following adverbs are compared irregularly. It would be well to memorize this list:

Positive

Comparative

Superlative

ill

worse

worst

well

better

best

badly

worse

worst

far

further (farther)

furthest (farthest)

little

less

least

much

more

most

Some adverbs are incapable of comparison, as here, there, now, today, hence, therefore, etc.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences mark which adverbs are used in the positive, which in the comparative and which in the superlative degree:

1. He came too late to get his letter.

2. I can understand clearly since you have explained the matter to me.

3. He speaks most truly concerning a matter of which he is well informed.

4. If he comes quickly he will arrive in time.

5. I will be able to speak more effectively when I have studied the subject.

6. Those who argue most ably are those who are in complete possession of the facts.

7. He needs to take a course such as this very badly.

8. I am too weary to go farther today.

9. This is the least expensive of them all.

10. If he arrives later in the day I will not be able to see him.

11. I can understand him more clearly than I can his friend.

12. You must work more rapidly under the Taylor system of efficiency.

13. Those who are least trained lose their positions first.

14. Those who are best fitted for the positions do not always receive them.

POSITION OF ADVERBS

295. When we use an adverb with an adjective or other adverb, we usually place the adverb before the adjective or adverb which it modifies. For example:

- She is very studious.

- Results come rather slowly.

- It is quite evident.

- He speaks too rapidly.

When we use an adverb with the simple form of the verb, (that is, either the present or past time form or any time form in which we do not need to use a phrase), if the verb is a complete verb, we place the adverb after the verb. For example:

- The boat arrived safely.

- The man came quickly.

- The boy ran fast.

- The teacher spoke hastily.

But when the verb is an incomplete verb used in the simple form, the adverb usually precedes it in order not to come between the verb and its object. As, for example:

- He willingly gave his consent to the proposition.

- She gladly wrote the letter which we requested.

- A soldier always obeys the command of a superior officer.

When the object of the incomplete verb is short, then the adverb is sometimes placed after the object. As, for example:

- I study my lessons carefully.

- He wrote a letter hastily.

The object is more closely connected with the verb and so is placed nearer the verb. However, when the object is modified by a phrase the adverb is sometimes placed immediately after the verb, as:

- I studied carefully the lessons given for this month.

- He wrote hastily a short letter to his son.

When we use an adverb with a verb phrase, we usually place the adverb after the first word in the verb phrase. For example:

- The boy has always worked.

- The workers will then understand.

- He will surely have arrived by that time.

When the verb is in the passive form the adverb immediately precedes the principal verb, as for example:

- The work can be quickly finished.

- The obstacles can be readily overcome.

- The lesson must be carefully prepared.

- The workers must be thoroughly organized.

When an adverb of time and an adverb of manner or place are used to modify the same verb, the adverb of time is placed first and the adverb of manner or place second, as for example:

- I often stop there.

- He usually walks very rapidly.

- They soon learn to work rapidly.

If the sentence contains adverbs of time, of place, and of manner; the adverb of time should come first; of place, second; and of manner, third; as:

- He usually comes here quickly.

Exercise 2

Improve the location of the adverbs in the following sentences and observe how the change of place of the adverb may alter the meaning of the sentence:

1. I only saw the President once.

2. Such prices are only paid in times of great scarcity.

3. No man has ever so much wealth that he does not want more.

4. It seems that the workers can be never aroused.

5. I want to briefly state the reason for my action.

6. I shall be glad to help you always.

7. I only mention a few of the facts.

8. He nearly walked to town.

9. We are told that the Japanese chiefly live upon rice.

10. They expected them to sign a treaty daily.

11. Having nearly lost all his money he feared again to venture.

ADVERBS AND INFINITIVES

296. You remember when we studied the infinitive in Lesson 9, we found that it was not good usage to split the infinitive; that is, to put the modifying word between to and the verb. For example: We ought to bravely stand for our rights. The correct form of this is: We ought to stand bravely for our rights.

But we have found, also, that common usage breaks down the old rules and makes new rules and laws for itself, and so we frequently find the adverb placed between the infinitive and its sign.

Sometimes it seems difficult to express our meaning accurately in any other way; for example, when we say: To almost succeed is not enough, we do not make the statement as forceful or as nearly expressive of our real idea, if we try to put the adverb almost in any other position. This is also true in such phrases as to far exceed, to more than counterbalance, to fully appreciate, and various other examples which you will readily find in your reading. The purpose of written and spoken language is to express our ideas adequately and accurately.

So we place our words in sentences to fulfill this purpose and not according to any stereotyped rule of grammarians. Ordinarily, though, it would be best not to place the adverb between the infinitive verb and its sign to. Do not split the infinitive unless by so doing you express your idea more accurately.

COMMON ERRORS

297. The position in the sentence of such adverbs as, only, also and merely, depends upon the meaning to be conveyed. The place where these adverbs occur in the sentences, may completely alter the meaning of the sentence. For example:

Only the address can be written on this side. We mean that nothing but the address can be written on this side.

The address can only be written on this side. We mean that the address cannot be printed, but must be written.

The address can be written only on this side. We mean that it cannot be written on any other side, but on this side only.

So you see that the place in which the adverb appears in the sentence depends upon the meaning to be conveyed and the adverb should be placed in the sentence so as to convey the meaning intended.

Never use an adjective for an adverb. One common error is using an adjective for an adverb. Remember that adjectives modify nouns only. Whenever you use a word to modify a verb, adjective or another adverb, use an adverb. For example, He speaks slow and plain. This is incorrect. The sentence should be, He speaks slowly and plainly. Watch this carefully. It is a very common error.

Another very common error is that of using an adverb instead of an adjective with the copulative verb. Never use an adverb in place of an adjective to complete a copulative verb. When a verb asserts an action on the part of the subject, the qualifying word that follows the verb is an adverb. For example, you would say:

- The sea was calm.

Here we use an adjective in the predicate, for we are describing the appearance of the sea, no action is expressed. But if we say: He spoke calmly, we use the adverb calmly, for the verb spoke expresses an action on the part of the subject, and the adverb calmly describes that action, it tells how he spoke. So we say: The water looks clear, but, We see clearly. She appears truthful. They answered truthfully. She looked sweet. She smiled sweetly.

With all forms of the verb be, as am, is, are, was, were, have been, has been, will be, etc., use an adjective in the predicate; as, He is glad. I am happy. They were eager. They will be sad. Use an adjective in the predicate with verbs like look, smell, taste, feel, appear and seem. For example: He looks bad. It smells good. The candy tastes sweet. The man feels fine today. She appears anxious. He seems weary.

Never use two negative words in the same sentence. The second negative destroys the first and we really make an affirmative statement. The two negatives neutralize each other and spoil the meaning of the sentence. For example, never say:

- I don't want no education.

- He didn't have no money.

- Don't say nothing to nobody.

- She never goes nowhere.

- He won't say nothing to you.

- He does not know nothing about it.

- He never stops for nothing.

- The stingy man gives nothing to nobody.

In all of these sentences we have used more than one negative; not and no, or not and nothing, or never and no, or never and nothing. Never use these double negatives. The correct forms of these sentences are:

- I don't want any education.

- He didn't have any money.

- Don't say anything to any one.

- She never goes anywhere.

- He won't say anything to you.

- He knows nothing about it.

- He never stops for anything.

- The stingy man gives nothing to any one.

Where to place the negative adverb, not. In English we do not use the negative adverb not with the common verb form, but when we use not in a sentence, we use the auxiliary do. For example, we do not say:

- I like it not.

- They think not so.

- He loves me not.

- We strive not to succeed.

Only in poetry do we use such expressions as these. In ordinary English, we say:

- I do not like it.

- They do not think so.

- He does not love me.

- We do not strive to succeed.

We often use here and there incorrectly after the words this and that. We often use here and there incorrectly after the words this and that.] For example, we say:

- This here lesson is shorter than that there one was.

This should be: This lesson is shorter than that one.

- Bring me that there book.

- This here man will not listen.

These sentences should read:

- Bring me that book.

- This man will not listen.

Never use here and there in this manner.

Another common mistake is using most for almost.

For example, we say:

- We are most there.

- I see her most every day.

These sentences should read:

- We are almost there.

- I see her almost every day.

Most is the superlative degree of much, and should be used only in that meaning.

We often use the adjective real in place of very or quite, to modify an adverb or an adjective.

For example, we say:

- I was real glad to know it.

- She looked real nice.

- You must come real soon.

Say instead:

- I am very glad to know it.

- She looked very nice.

- You must come quite soon.

Really is the adverb form of the adjective real. You might have said:

- I am really glad to know it.

But never use real when you mean very or quite or really.

We use the adjective some many times when we should use the adverb somewhat. For example, we say:

- I am some anxious to hear from him.

- I was some tired after my trip.

What we intended to say was:

- I am somewhat anxious to hear from him.

- I was somewhat tired after my trip.

Do not use what for when you mean why. Do not say:

- What did you do that for?

Or worse still,

- What for did you do that?

Say:

- Why did you do that?

Do not use worse in place of more. Do not say:

- I want to go worse than I ever did.

Say:

- I want to go more than I ever did.

Observe the distinction between the words further and farther. Farther always refers to distance, or extent. For example:

- He could go no farther that day.

- We will go farther into the matter some other time.

Further means more. For example:

- He would say nothing further in regard to the subject.

Never use good as an adverb. Good is always an adjective. Well is the adverb form. Good and well are compared in the same way, good, better, best, and well, better, best. So better and best can be used either as adjectives or adverbs; but good is always an adjective. Do not say, He talks good. Say, He talks well. Note that ill is both an adjective and an adverb and that illy is always incorrect.

Exercise 3

Correct the adverbs in the following sentences. All but two of these sentences are wrong.

1. Come quick, I need you.

2. The boy feels badly.

3. Give me that there pencil.

4. I am some hungry.

5. The people learn slow.

6. He never stopped for nothing.

7. What did you say that for?

8. This here machine won't run.

9. I make a mistake most every time.

10. Watch careful every word.

11. The man works good.

12. The tone sounds harsh.

13. I don't want no dinner.

14. I hope it comes real soon.

15. I want to learn worse than ever.

16. She looked lovely.

17. She smiled sweet.

18. He sees good for one so old.

19. She answered correct.

20. He won't say nothing about it.

21. I will be real glad to see you.

22. That tastes sweetly.

23. The man acted too hasty.

24. We had most reached home.

25. They ride too rapid.

DO NOT USE TOO MANY ADVERBS

298. Like adjectives it is better to use adverbs sparingly. This is especially true of the adverbs used to intensify our meaning. Do not use the adverbs, very, awfully, etc., with every other word. It makes our speech sound like that of a gushing school girl, to whom everything is very, awfully sweet. More than that, it does not leave us any words to use when we really want to be intense in speech. Save these words until the right occasion comes to use them.

Exercise 4

Adverbs should always be placed where there can be no doubt as to what they are intended to modify. A mistake in placing the adverb in the sentence often alters the meaning of the sentence. Choose the right word in each of the following sentences:

1. He looked glad—gladly when I told him the news.

2. Slaves have always been treated harsh—harshly.

3. I prefer my eggs boiled soft—softly.

4. The lecturer was tolerable—tolerably well informed.

5. Speak slower—more slowly so I can understand you.

6. The evening bells sound sweet—sweetly.

7. The house appears comfortable—comfortably and pleasant—pleasantly.

8. If you will come quick—quickly you can hear the music.

9. I was exceeding—exceedingly glad to hear from you.

10. The bashful young man appeared very awkward—awkwardly.

11. The young lady looked beautiful—beautifully and she sang beautiful—beautifully.

12. I looked quick—quickly in the direction of the sound.

13. The sun is shining bright—brightly today and the grass looks green—greenly.

SPELLING

LESSON 17

In our study of adjectives we have found that we use them to express some quality possessed by a noun or pronoun which they modify. You will recall when we studied nouns, we had one class of nouns, called abstract nouns, which were the names of qualities. So we find that from these adjectives expressing quality we form nouns which we use as the name of that quality.

For example from the adjective happy, we form the noun happiness, which is the name of the quality described by the adjective happy, by the addition of the suffix ness. We use this suffix ness quite often in forming these derivative nouns from adjectives but there are other suffixes also which we use; as for example, the suffix ty as in security, formed from the adjective secure, changing the e to i and adding the suffix ty. When the word ends in t we sometimes add only y as in honesty, derived from the adjective honest.

You remember that an abstract noun may express not only quality but also action, considered apart from the actor; so abstract nouns may be made from verbs. For example:

Running, from the verb run; settlement, from the verb settle.

In our lesson for this week the list for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contains adjectives of quality from which abstract nouns expressing quality can be made, by the addition of the proper suffix, either ness, y, ty or tion. The list for Thursday, Friday and Saturday consists of verbs from which abstract nouns can be made by the addition of the suffixes ment and ing.

Make from each adjective and verb in this week's lesson an abstract noun by the addition of the proper suffix. Be able to distinguish between the use of the qualifying adjective and the noun expressing quality.

Monday

- Stately

- Forgetful

- Real

- Concise

- Noble

Tuesday

- Slender

- Empty

- Equal

- Righteous

- Deliberate

Wednesday

- Submissive

- Dreadful

- Eager

- Sincere

- Resolute

Thursday

- Enlist

- Defile

- Adorn

- Nourish

- Commence

Friday

- Content

- Adjust

- Induce

- Indict

- Adjourn

Saturday

- Discourage

- Refine

- Acquire

- Enrich

- Infringe

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 18

Dear Comrade:

Last week we finished the study of adverbs and we found that they were a very important part of our vocabulary, and that most of us needed a greater supply than we at present possess. This is true of both adverbs and adjectives. While we do not use as many adverbs as adjectives in our ordinary speech, nevertheless, adverbs are a very important factor in expression. A great many adjectives can be readily turned into adverbs. They are adjectives when they are used to describe a noun, but by the addition of a suffix, they become adverbs used to describe the action expressed by the verb. So in adding to our stock of adjectives we also add adverbs to our vocabulary as well.

Watch your speech this week and make a list of the adverbs which you use most commonly, then go to your dictionary and see if you cannot find synonyms for these adverbs. Try using these synonyms for awhile and give the adverbs which you have been using for so long, a well earned rest. Remember that our vocabulary, and the power to use it, is like our muscles, it can only grow and develop by exercise.

The best exercise which you can possibly find for this purpose is conversation. We spend much more time in talking than in reading or in writing. Conversation is an inexpensive pleasure and it does not even require leisure always, for we can talk as we work; yet our conversation can become a great source of inspiration and of influence as well as a pleasant pastime. But do not spend your time in vapid and unprofitable conversation. Surely there is some one in the list of your acquaintances who would like to talk of things worth while. Hunt up this some one and spend some portion of your day in profitable conversation.

Remember also that a limited vocabulary means also a limited mental development. Did you ever stop to think that when we think clearly we think in words? Our thinking capacity is limited, unless we have the words to follow our ideas out to their logical conclusions.

This matter of vocabulary is a matter, too, that is exceedingly practical. It means success or failure to us in the work which we would like to do in the world. A command of words means added power and efficiency; it means the power to control, or at least affect, our environment; it means the power over men and things; it means the difference between being people of ability and influence and being obscure, inefficient members of society.

So feel when you are spending your time in increasing your vocabulary that you are not only adding to your enjoyment of life but that you are doing yourself the best practical turn; you are increasing your efficiency in putting yourself in a position where you can make your influence felt upon the people and circumstances about you. This effort upon your part will bear practical fruit in your every day life.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

A GROUP OF WORDS

299. We have studied about the independent parts of speech, that is, the nouns and pronouns and verbs. These are independent because with them we can form sentences without the help of other words. And these are the only three parts of speech which are so independent—with which we can form complete sentences. Then we have studied also the words that modify,—that is, the words that are used with nouns and pronouns and verbs to describe and explain more fully the ideas which they express. So we have studied adjectives, which modify nouns and pronouns; and adverbs, which modify verbs or adjectives or other adverbs.

300. The adjectives and adverbs which we have studied thus far are single words; but we find that we may use little groups of words in about the same way, to express the same idea which we have expressed in the single adjective or adverb. For example, we may say:

- Strong men, or, men of strength.

- City men, or, men from the city.

- Jobless men, or, men without jobs.

- Moneyed men, or, men with money.

These groups of words like, of strength, from the city, without jobs, and with money, express the same ideas that are expressed in the single adjectives, strong, city, jobless and moneyed.

You recall that we defined any group of words used as a single word as a phrase; so these groups of words are phrases which are used as adjectives. The phrase, of strength, modifies the noun men, just as the adjective strong modifies the noun men. So we may call these phrases which modify nouns, or which may be used to modify pronouns also, adjective phrases, for they are groups of words used as adjectives.

Exercise 1

Change the adjectives which are printed in italics in the following sentences into phrases:

1. Strong men know no fear.

2. She bought a Turkish rug.

3. He followed the river bed.

4. Fashionable women are parasites.

5. He left on his homeward journey.

6. Sensible men readily understand their economic slavery.

7. Intelligent people will not always submit to robbery.

8. Senseless arguments cannot convince us of the truth.

USED AS ADVERBS

301. These phrases may be used in the place of single adverbs also. You remember an adverb is a word that modifies a verb or an adjective or another adverb. Let us see if we can not use a phrase or a group of words in the place of a single adverb. For example:

- The man works rapidly, or, The man works with rapidity.

- The man works now, or, The man works at this time.

- The man works here, or, The man works at this place.

In these sentences rapidly, now and here are single adverbs modifying the verb work. The phrases, with rapidity, at this time, and at this place, express practically the same ideas, conveyed by the single adverbs, rapidly, now and here. These phrases modify the verb in exactly the same manner as the single adverbs. Therefore we call these groups of words used as single adverbs, adverb phrases.

We also use adverbs to modify adjectives. Let us see if we can use adverb phrases in the same way:

- Rockefeller is excessively rich; or, Rockefeller is rich to excess.

- He is bodily perfect, but mentally weak; or, He is perfect in body but weak in mind.

In the sentences above, the adverb excessively modifies the adjective rich; the same meaning is expressed in the adverb phrase, to excess. In the sentence, He is bodily perfect, but mentally weak, the adverb bodily modifies the adjective perfect and the adverb mentally modifies the adjective weak. In the last sentence, the same meaning is expressed by the adverb phrases, in body and in mind. These phrases modify the adjectives perfect and weak, just as do the single adverbs bodily and mentally.

302. We can use a phrase in the place of almost any adverb or adjective. It very often happens, however, that there is no adjective or adverb which we can use to exactly express our meaning and we are forced to use a phrase. For example:

- He bought the large house by the river.

- The man on the train is going to the city.

- He came from the country.

It is impossible to find single words that express the meaning of these phrases, by the river, on the train, to the city, and from the country. You could not say the river house; that is not what you mean. You mean the large house by the river, yet the phrase by the river modifies and describes the house quite as much as the adjective large. It is an adjective phrase used to modify the noun house, yet it would be impossible to express its meaning in a single word.

Exercise 2

Which phrases in the following sentences are used as adjectives and which phrases are used as adverbs?

Change these phrases to adjectives or adverbs, if you can think of any that express the same meaning.

1. Men lived in caves long ago.

2. Man's discovery of fire was the beginning of industry.

3. After this discovery, men lived in groups.

4. The work of the world is done by machinery.

5. The workers of Europe were betrayed.

6. They are fighting for their country.

7. The struggle for markets is the cause of war.

8. The history of the world records the struggle of the workers.

9. The idea of democracy is equal opportunity for all.

10. The invention of the printing press placed knowledge within the reach of the masses.

11. If you will study with diligence you can learn with ease.

12. This knowledge will be of great value to you.

13. Diplomacy means that the plans of nations are made in secret.

14. The men in the factory are all paid by the month.

15. They are afraid to take a trip through Europe at this time.

Exercise 3

Use a phrase instead of the adjective or adverb in the following sentences:

- The men in the trenches are fighting bravely.

- An uneducated man is easily exploited.

- Our educational system is inadequate.

- The skilled workers must be organized.

- Careless men endanger the lives of others.

- The plans have been carefully laid.

- Ambitious men often trample on the rights of others.

- Shall our education be controlled by wealthy men?

- We want to live courageously.

- We want to face the future fearlessly.

- We want to possess peacefully the fruits of our labor.

- By constant practice we can learn to speak effectively.

- This book will be a valuable addition to your library.

- The number of unemployed men constantly increases.

- The men mastered each step thoroughly as they proceeded.

- In order to express one's self eloquently it is necessary to think clearly.

- We must consecrate ourselves completely to the cause of humanity.

- A kind act is its own reward.

- Experienced workers can more easily secure positions.

- He spoke thoughtlessly but the people listened eagerly.

- The soldier was rewarded for his heroic deed.

- He is an honorable man and I am not surprised at this brave act.

- A prudent man should be chosen to fill that important office.

PREPOSITIONS

303. Have you noticed that all of these phrases, which we have been studying and using as adjectives and adverbs, begin with a little word like of, with, from, in, at or by, which connects the phrase with the word it modifies? We could scarcely express our meaning without these little words. They are connecting words and fill an important function. These words usually come first in the phrase. For this reason, they are called prepositions, which means to place before.

Let us see what a useful place these little words fill in our language. Suppose we were watching the play of some boys outside our windows and were reporting their hiding place. We might say:

- The boys are hiding in the bushes.

- The boys are hiding among the bushes.

- The boys are hiding under the bushes.

- The boys are hiding behind the bushes.

- The boys are hiding beyond the bushes.

These sentences are all alike except the prepositions in, among, under, behind and beyond. If you read the sentences and leave out these prepositions entirely, you will see that nobody could possibly tell what connection the bushes had with the rest of the sentence. The prepositions are necessary to express the relation of the word bushes to the rest of the sentence.

But this is not all. You can readily see that the use of a different preposition changes the meaning of the sentence. It means quite a different thing to say, The boys are hiding in the bushes, and to say, The boys are hiding beyond the bushes. So the preposition has a great deal to do with the true expression of our ideas.

The noun bushes is used as the object of the preposition, and the preposition shows the relation of its object to the word which it modifies. You remember that nouns have the same form whether they are used as subject or as object, but if you are using a pronoun after a preposition, always use the object form of the pronoun. For example:

- I bought the book from him.

- I took the message to them.

- I found the place for her.

In these sentences the pronouns, him, them, and her are used as objects of the prepositions from, to and for. So we have used the object forms of these pronouns.

304. The noun or pronoun that follows the preposition, and is used with it to make a phrase, is the object of the preposition. The preposition is used to show the relation that exists between its object and the word the object modifies. In the sentence above, The boys are hiding in the bushes, the preposition in shows the relationship between the verb phrase, are hiding and the object of the preposition, bushes.

The noun or pronoun which is the object of a preposition may also have its modifiers. In the sentences used about the noun bush, which is the object of the prepositions used, is modified by the adjective the. Other modifiers might also be added, as for example:

- The boys are hiding in the tall, thick bushes.

The entire phrase, in the tall, thick bushes, is made up of the preposition in, its object bushes and the modifiers of bushes, the, tall and thick.

305. The preposition, with its object and the modifiers of the object, forms a phrase which we call a prepositional phrase. These prepositional phrases may be used either as adjectives or as adverbs, so we have our definitions:

A preposition is a word that shows the relation of its object to some other word.

A phrase is a group of words used as a single word.

A prepositional phrase is a phrase composed of a preposition and its object and modifiers.

An adjective phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adjective.

An adverb phrase is a prepositional phrase used as an adverb.

306. Here is a list of the most common and most important prepositions. Use each one in a sentence:

- above

- about

- across

- after

- against

- along

- around

- among

- at

- before

- behind

- below

- beneath

- beside

- between

- beyond

- by

- down

- for

- from

- in

- into

- of

- off

- over

- to

- toward

- through

- up

- upon

- under

- with

- within

- without

ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS

307. Many of the words that are used as prepositions are used also as adverbs. It may be a little confusing to tell whether the word is an adverb or a preposition, but if you will remember this simple rule you will have no trouble:

A preposition is always followed by either a noun or a pronoun as its object, while an adverb never has an object.

So when you find a word, that can be used either as a preposition or an adverb, used alone in a sentence without an object, it is an adverb; but if it is followed by an object, then it is a preposition. This brings again to our minds the fundamental rule which we have laid down, that every word is classified according to the work which it does in a sentence. The work of a preposition is to show the relation between its object and the word which that object modifies. So whenever a word is used in this way it is a preposition. For example: He went about his business.

Here, about is a preposition and business is its object. But in the sentence, He is able to be about, about is used as an adverb. It has no object.

He sailed before the mast. Here, before is a preposition introducing the phrase before the mast, which modifies the verb sailed. But in the sentence, I told you that before, before is an adverb modifying the verb told.

By applying this rule you can always readily determine whether the word in question is an adverb or a preposition.

Exercise 4

Tell whether the words printed in italics in the following sentences, are prepositions or adverbs and the reason why:

1. He came across the street.

2. He is without work.

3. Come in.

4. He lives near.

5. He brought it for me.

6. I cannot get across.

7. We will go outside.

8. This is between you and me.

9. He can go without.

10. Stay in the house.

11. Do not come near me.

12. They all went aboard at six o'clock.

13. He enlisted in the navy and sailed before the mast.

14. I do not know what lies beyond.

15. I will soon be through.

16. The aeroplane flew above the city for hours.

PHRASE PREPOSITIONS

308. Sometimes we have a preposition made up of several words which we have used so commonly together that they are used as a single word and we call the entire phrase a preposition. As, for example: According to—on account of—by means of, etc.

1. He answered according to the rule.

2. I could not go on account of illness.

3. He won the election by means of fraud.

4. The strike was won by help of all the comrades.

5. You can learn to spell only by dint of memory.

6. We speak incorrectly by force of habit.

7. He went to New York by way of Chicago.

8. Ferrer died for the sake of his ideals.

9. In consideration of this payment, we will send you the set of books.

10. Germany issued her ultimatum in defiance of the world.

11. In view of all the facts, we are convinced of his innocence.

12. He will gladly suffer in place of his comrade.

13. In conformity with the information contained in your letter,

14. I will join you on the 10th.

Exercise 5

Mark the prepositions in the following quotation. In the first three paragraphs the prepositional phrases are printed in italics. Determine whether they are used as adjective phrases or as adverb phrases. Underscore the prepositional phrases in the remainder of the quotation and determine which word is used as the object of the preposition.

THE SUNLIGHT LAY ACROSS MY BED

In the dark one night I lay upon my bed. And in the dark I dreamed a dream. I dreamed God took my soul to Hell.

And we came where hell opened into a plain, and a great house stood there. Marble pillars upheld the roof, and white marble steps led up to it. The wind of heaven blew through it. Only at the back hung a thick curtain. Fair men and women there feasted at long tables. They danced, and I saw the robes of women flutter in the air and heard the laugh of strong men. They feasted with wine; they drew it from large jars which stood somewhat in the background, and I saw the wine sparkle as they drew it.

And I said to God, "I should like to go up and drink." And God said, "Wait." And I saw men coming into the banquet house; they came in from The back and lifted the corner of the curtain at the sides and crept inquickly; and they let the curtain fall behind them; they bore great jars they could hardly carry. And the men and women crowded round them, and the newcomers opened their jars and gave them of the wine to drink; and I saw that the women drank even more greedily than the men. And when others had well drunken they set the jars among the old ones beside the wall, and took their places at the table. And I saw that some of the jars were very old and mildewed and dusty, but others had still drops of new must on them and shone from the furnace.

And I said to God, "What is that?" For amid the sounds of the singing, and over the dancing of feet, and over the laughing across the winecups, I heard a cry.

And God said, "Stand away off."

And He took me where I saw both sides of the curtain. Behind the house was a wine-press where the wine was made. I saw the grapes crushed, and I heard them cry. I said, "Do not they on the other side hear it?"

God said, "The curtain is thick; they are feasting."

And I said, "But the men who came in last. They saw?"

God said, "They let the curtain fall behind them—and they forgot!"

I said, "How came they by their jars of wine?"

God said, "In the treading of the press these are they who came to the top; they have climbed out over the edge and filled their jars from below; and have gone into the house."

And I said, "And if they had fallen as they climbed—?"

God said, "They had been wine."

I stood away off watching in the sunshine, and I shivered.

And after a while I looked, and I saw the curtain that hung behind the house moving.

I said to God, "Is it a wind?"

God said, "A wind."

And it seemed to me that against the curtain I saw pressed the forms of men and women. And after a while, the feasters saw it move, and they whispered one to another. Then some rose and gathered the most worn-out cups, and into them they put what was left at the bottom of other vessels. Mothers whispered to their children, "Do not drink all, save a little drop when you have drunk." And when they had collected all the dregs they slipped the cups out under the bottom of the curtain without lifting it. After a while the curtain left off moving.

I said to God, "How is it so quiet?"

He said, "They have gone away to drink it."

I said, "They drink it—their own!"

God said, "It comes from this side of the curtain, and they are very thirsty."

And still the feast went on.

Men and women sat at the tables quaffing great bowls. Some rose, and threw their arms about each other and danced and sang. They pledged each other in the wine, and kissed each other's blood-red lips.

Men drank till they could drink no longer, and laid their heads upon the table, sleeping heavily. Women who could dance no more leaned back on the benches with their heads against their lovers' shoulders. Little children, sick with wine, lay down upon the edge of their mothers' robes.

I said, "I cannot see more, I am afraid of Hell. When I see men dancing I hear the time beaten in with sobs; and their wine is living! Oh, I cannot bear Hell!"

God said, "Where will you go?"

I said, "To the earth from which I came; it was better there."

And God laughed at me; and I wondered why He laughed.—Olive Schreiner.

SPELLING

LESSON 18

There are a number of words that are ordinarily followed by a preposition with its phrase. We make a great many mistakes in the use of the proper preposition with these words. Our spelling lesson this week covers a number of these words with examples illustrating the appropriate preposition to be used with each word. Learn to spell these words, look up their meaning in the dictionary and use each word with its proper preposition in sentences of your own construction.

MONDAY

- Abhorrence, of; We have an abhorrence of war.

- Abhorrent, to; War is abhorrent to us.

- Acquaint, with; I will acquaint you with the facts in the case. You will then be acquainted with the facts.

- Acquit, of; The man was acquitted of the charge.

- Adequate, to; Our resources are not adequate to the demand.

TUESDAY

- Angry, with, at; We are angry with persons and angry at things.

- Astonished, at or by; (Never with) I am astonished at you, or by you, not with you.

- Confer; We confer with people, upon or about matters.

- Contrary; A thing is contrary to our ideas, (not from or than).

- Controversy; with, between, or about, (not over). I had a controversy with you. There is a controversy between the two about the result.

WEDNESDAY

- Convicted, of (not for). He was convicted of the crime.

- Copy; We copy after people, from things, and out of books.

- Deprive, of, (not from). We are deprived of an education.

- Desire, of and for; We may speak of the desire of a man, meaning man's desire; but we should always say "He has a desire for position, for wealth," etc.

- Die, of, for and from; A person dies of, not from, a disease. He dies from the effects of an injury. One person may die with another, but never with a disease, for the disease does not die.

THURSDAY

- Differ, from, among, about, concerning, with; Persons or things differ from each other; that is, they are dissimilar in appearance. Two persons may differ with each other; that is, contend or disagree. Several persons differ among themselves about or concerning some matter.

- Dissent, from (not to). There was a general dissent from that idea.

- Guilty, of (not for). He is guilty of the crime.

- Incentive, to (not for). It is a great incentive to action.

- Receive, from, (not of). Received from John Smith, thirty dollars, etc.

FRIDAY

- Infer, from, (not by). I infer this from your remarks, not by your remarks.

- Introduce; A man is introduced to a woman, a speaker to an audience; into society or into new surroundings. We introduce a bill in Congress or a resolution in a committee.

- Involved, in (not with). We are involved in difficulties.

- Listen; We listen for the expected news; we listen to our friends, not at.

- Married; One person is married to another, not with another.

SATURDAY

- Matter, with, (not of). What is the matter with this?

- Opposition, to (not against). There is opposition to the motion.

- Part, to part from, means to leave. I will part from my friends. To part with means to give up. A fool soon parts with his money.

- Remedy, for; We have a remedy for the disease.

- Preventive, against; We have a preventive against disease.

It is easy to sit in the sunshine

And talk to the man in the shade;

It is easy to float in a well-trimmed boat,

And point out the places to wade.

But once we pass into the shadows

We murmur and fret and frown;

At our length from the bank, we shout for a plank,

Or throw up our hands and go down.

It is easy to sit in a carriage

And counsel the man on foot;

But get down and walk and you'll change your talk,

As you feel the peg in your boot.

It is easy to tell the toiler

How best he can carry his pack;

But not one can rate a burden's weight

Until it has been on his back.

The up-curled mouth of pleasure

Can preach of sorrow's worth;

But give it a sip, and a wryer lip,

Was never made on earth.

—Ella Wheeler Wilcox.

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 19

Dear Comrade:

In this lesson we are completing our study of the preposition. The preposition is one of the last parts of speech which we take up for study and it is also one of the last parts of speech to be added to our vocabulary. The child does not use the preposition when it first begins to talk. It uses the names of things; words of action; words that describe objects and actions. It does not begin to use prepositions until it begins to relate ideas.

The relation of ideas means that we are thinking; combining ideas into thoughts. Then we begin to need prepositions, which are words of relation, connecting words, expressing the relationship between ideas. The measure of the fullness and richness of our lives is the measure of our understanding of the world about us, of the relationship existing between the different phases of that world and of our relationship to it all.

So words do not mean much to us until we can relate them to our own lives and our own experiences. When you look up a word in the dictionary, do not study the word alone; study also the thing for which it stands. A person with a good memory might acquire a vocabulary by sheer feat of memory; but what good would it do unless each word could be related to practical experience? It is only in this way that words become alive to us. We must have an idea, a concept and knowledge of the thing for which the word stands.

So let us use our dictionary in this way. Do not be satisfied when you have looked up a word simply to know how to spell and pronounce the word and understand somewhat of its meaning. Do not be satisfied until it has become a live word to you. Have a clear image and understanding of just what each word stands for. Use the words in sentences of your own. Use them in your conversation. Make them a part of your every-day life.

Do not pass over any of the words in the lesson without understanding their meaning. Study the poem Abou Ben Adhem in this week's lesson. After you have read it over a number of times, close the book and rewrite the poem in prose in your own language. Then compare your version with the poem. Note where you have used different expressions and decide which is the better, the words used in the poem or your own words. Rewrite it several times until you have a well-written version of this poem.

Exercises such as this will increase your vocabulary and quickly develop the power of expression. No power can come in any department of life without effort having been expended in its acquisition. Our great writers have been careful students. Robert Louis Stevenson says that he has often spent a half a day searching for the particular word which he needed to express precisely the idea in mind. Stevenson is a master of the English and this power came to him by this sort of studious and earnest work.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

AN IMPORTANT WORD

309. Things are not always to be judged by their size. Sometimes the most important things are very small and unimportant in appearance. A great machine is before you. You see its giant wheels, its huge levers. These may seem to be the most important parts of the machine, but here and there throughout this great machine are little screws and bolts. These bind the giant parts together. Without these connecting links, the great wheels and levers and revolving belts could not work together. Let a little bolt slip out of its place in the mechanism, and the great wheels stop, the throbbing machinery comes to a standstill. No work is possible until this little bolt has been replaced.

So in our sentence building, the preposition is the bolt that joins words together. The importance of the preposition in a language increases just in proportion as the nation learns to think more exactly and express itself more accurately.

We found in our last lesson that by changing a preposition we can change the entire meaning of the sentence. A man's life may depend upon the use of a certain preposition. You may swear his life away by bearing testimony to the fact whether you saw him within the house, or without the house; or before dark, or after dark.

310. The preposition is an important word in the sentence. We can use it to serve our purpose in various ways. We have found, for instance, that we can use it:

First, to change an adjective into an adjective phrase. As, for example:

- The fearless man demands his rights.

- The man without fear demands his rights.

Second, to change an adverb into an adverb phrase. As, for example:

- We want to possess peacefully the fruits of our labor.

- We want to possess in peace the fruits of our labor.

Third, to express a meaning which we can express in no other way; as, for example, They are fighting for their country. There is no single word which we can use to express the meaning which we express in the phrase, for their country.

311. So the preposition has given us a new means of expression, the prepositional phrase. We can, by its help, use a phrase in place of an adjective to modify a noun or a pronoun, and in place of an adverb to modify a verb or an adjective. And we can also use the prepositional phrase to express relationship which we cannot express by a single adjective or adverb.

If I want to tell you that I see a bird in yonder tree, such an expression would be impossible without that little preposition in. By the use of various prepositions, I can express to you the relationship between the bird and the tree. I can tell you whether it is under the tree, or in the tree, or over the tree, or flying around the tree, or near the tree. By the use of the various prepositions, I can express accurately the relationship that exists between the bird and the tree.

Exercise 1

Look up the list of prepositions in Section 306, on page 184. Use the following pairs of words in sentences and use as many different prepositions as you can to express the different relationships which may be expressed between these words. For example, take the two words, man and house. You may say:

- The man went around the house.

- The man went about the house.

- The man went over the house.

- The man went under the house.

- The man went without the house.

- The man went into the house.

- The man went by the house.

- The man went beyond the house.

- The man went to the house.

enemy

city

soldiers

cannon

man

machine

woman

factory

children

school

government

people

A GOVERNING WORD

312. The preposition shows the relation between two words. In this way it enables us to use a noun or a pronoun as a modifying word. For example, in the sentence given above, I see the bird in the tree, the preposition in shows the relationship between bird and tree, and makes of tree a modifying word. It expresses a different meaning than if we used the word tree as an adjective. For we do not mean that we see a tree bird, but a bird in a tree. So with the help of the preposition in, we have used tree as a modifying word.

But the preposition in also governs the form of the word that follows it. Since nouns have the same form whether they are used as subject or object, this does not mean any change in the form of the nouns. But pronouns have different forms for the subject and object, so when we use a pronoun with a preposition, we must use the object form. There are seven object forms of the personal pronouns, and after a preposition, always use one of these object forms.

- He gave it to me.

- Give it to him.

- Give it to her.

- Add this to it.

- Bring it to us.

- I will give it to you.

- He gave it to them.

313. Be careful to always use the object form of the pronoun following a preposition. Observe this also in the use of the relative and interrogative pronoun "who." The object form is "whom." For example:

- To whom will you go?

- This is the man to whom I wrote.

- For whom are you looking?

- Where is the woman for whom you would make such a sacrifice?

Where to Put the Preposition

314. The preposition generally precedes its object. This is the reason it was given its name, preposition, meaning to place before. Sometimes, however, the preposition is separated from its object. This is often true when it is used with an interrogative or relative pronoun. With these pronouns, the preposition is often thrown to the end of the sentence. For example:

- This is the book about which I was speaking; or, This is the book which I was speaking about.

- To whom shall I give this letter; or, Who shall I give this letter to?

The sentence, To whom shall I give this letter, is grammatically correct; but in ordinary usage we use the form, Who shall I give this letter to?

While the rule calls for the object form of the relative pronoun after a preposition—so that the use of to whom is grammatically correct—in common usage we use the subject form of the pronoun when it is used so far away from the preposition which governs it. So we find this use common. For example, instead of saying, For whom is this letter? we say, Who is this letter for?

315. In poetry also, we often find the object coming before the preposition. For example:

"The interlacing boughs between

Shadows dark and sunlight sheen,

Alternate, come and go."

Boughs is here the object of the preposition between, but in this poetic expression the object is placed before the preposition. Note also in the following:

"The unseen mermaid's pearly song,

Comes bubbling up the weeds among."

"Forever panting and forever young,

All breathing human passion far beyond."

316. After an interrogative adjective, the preposition is also often thrown to the end of the sentence. As, for example:

- What men are the people talking about?

- Which person did you write to?

With these few exceptions, however, the preposition usually precedes its object, as:

- We were astonished at the news.

- He arose from his sleep.

POSSESSIVE PHRASES

317. Review Lesson 4, in which we studied the possessive use of nouns. You will recall that we make the possessive form of the nouns by the use of the apostrophe and s. But instead of using the possessive forms of the name of inanimate things; that is, things without life, we generally denote possession by the use of a phrase. Thus we would say, The arm of the chair, instead of, The chair's arm; or, The roof of the house, instead of, The house's roof.

318. We also use a possessive phrase when the use of a possessive form would give an awkward construction. As, for example: Jesus' sayings. So many hissing sounds are not pleasant to the ear and so, we say instead, The sayings of Jesus.

319. We use a phrase also where both nouns are in the plural form. In many words, there is no difference in the sound between a single noun in the possessive form and a plural noun in the possessive form. We can readily tell the meaning when it is written, because the place of the apostrophe indicates the meaning, but when it is spoken the sound is exactly the same. As, for example:

- The lady's hats.

- The ladies' hats.

Written out in this way, you know that in the first instance I am speaking of the hats belonging to one lady, but in the second instance of the hats belonging to two or more ladies. But when it is spoken, you can not tell whether I mean one lady or a number of ladies. So we use a phrase and say, The hats of the lady; or, The hats of the ladies. Then the meaning is entirely clear.

320. Sometimes we want to use two possessives together, and in this case it is better to change one of them into a phrase; for example, This is my comrade's father's book. This is an awkward construction. Say instead, This is the book belonging to my comrade's father.

321. Do not overlook the fact, however, that the phrase beginning with of does not always mean possession. Consider the following examples and see if there is not a difference in meaning:

- The history of Wilson is interesting.

- Wilson's history is interesting.

In the first instance, I mean the history of Wilson's life is interesting; in the second instance I mean the history belongs to or written by Wilson is interesting. So there is quite a difference in the meaning. The phrase of Wilson used in the first example does not indicate possession.

Note the difference in meaning between the following sentences:

- The picture of Millet is good.

- Millet's picture is good.

- The statue of Rodin stands in the park.

- Rodin's statue stands in the park.

Would you say:

- The invention of gunpowder, or gunpowder's invention?

- The destruction of Louvain, or Louvain's destruction?

- The siege of Antwerp, or Antwerp's siege?

- The boat's keel, or the keel of the boat?

COMMON ERRORS

322. Prepositions are usually very small and seemingly unimportant words, yet we make a great many mistakes in their use. It is these little mistakes that are most difficult to avoid.

Notice carefully in your own speech this week, and in the conversation which you overhear, the use of the prepositions. Notice especially the following cautions:

1. Do not use prepositions needlessly. We often throw a preposition in at the close of a sentence which we have already used in the sentence, and which we should not use again. The little preposition at is most frequently used in this way. See how many times this week you hear people use such phrases as:

- At which store do you trade at?

- At what corner did you stop at?

The last at is entirely unnecessary. It has already been used once and that is enough. We also use at and to at the close of sentences beginning with an interrogative adverb, where they are not necessary. For example, we say:

- Where did you go to?

- Where did you stop at?

- Where am I at?

The correct form of these sentences is:

- Where did you go?

- Where did you stop?

- Where am I?

Do not use at and to in this way, they are entirely superfluous and give a most disagreeable sound to the sentence. Do not close a sentence with a preposition in this way.

2. Do not omit the preposition where it properly belongs. For example, we often say:

- The idea is no use to me.

We should say, The idea is of no use to me.

- I was home yesterday.

We should say, I was at home yesterday.

3. Do not use the preposition of with a verb that requires an object. The noun cannot be the object of both the verb and the preposition. As, for example:

- He does not remember of seeing you.

- Do you approve of his action?

Remember and approve are both incomplete verbs requiring an object, and the nouns seeing and action are the objects of the incomplete verbs remember and approve. The preposition of is entirely superfluous. The sentences should read:

- He does not remember seeing you.

- Do you approve his action?

Other verbs with which we commonly use the preposition of in this way are the verbs accept and recollect. As, for example:

- Will you accept of this kindness?

- Will you try to recollect of it?

These sentences should read:

- Will you accept this kindness?

- Will you try to recollect it?

The Correct Preposition

323. We make a great many mistakes also in the choice of prepositions. For example, the preposition between refers to two objects and should never be used when you are speaking of more than two, thus:

- We settled the quarrel between the two men.

This is correct, but it is incorrect to say:

- We settled the quarrel between the members of the Union.

We cannot settle a quarrel between a dozen people. When there are more than two, use the word among. We can perhaps attempt to settle a quarrel among a dozen people. Between refers to two objects, among refers to more than two. For example:

- Divide the work between the two men.

- Divide the work among twenty men.

324. Do not confuse the use of in and into. When entrance is denoted use into. As, for example:

- He came into the room.

- He got into the auto.

Often the use of in will give an entirely different meaning to the sentence. For example:

- He ran in the water.

- He ran into the water.

- The man acted as our guide in the city.

- The man acted as our guide into the city.

- The horse ran in the pasture.

- The horse ran into the pasture.

325. Do not use below and under to mean less or fewer in regard to an amount or number. Below and under have reference to place only. It is correct to say:

- He went under the bridge.

- He came out below the falls.

But it is incorrect to say:

- The price is below cost.

- There were under fifty present.

Say instead:

- The price is less than cost.

- There were fewer than fifty present.

326. Do not misuse over and above. These prepositions have reference only to place. They are incorrectly used to mean more than or greater than.

It is correct to say:

- The boat anchored above the landing.

- He flew over the city.

It is incorrect to say:

- He bought above a hundred acres.

- He lives over a mile from here.

These sentences should be:

- He bought more than a hundred acres.

- He lives more than a mile from here.

THE PREPOSITION WITH VERBS

327. In our first lesson on prepositions, we had a list of verbs and the correct preposition to use with these verbs. There are a few words which we use very commonly in which the meaning is slightly different according to the preposition which we use in connection with the verb. Foreigners especially who are learning the English language have great difficulty with the prepositions. Here are a few of these common words:

Adapt. With adapt we can use either the preposition to or for. For example; we adapt ourselves to circumstances, that is, we accommodate or conform ourselves; but a thing can be adapted for a certain purpose.

Agree. We can use the prepositions with and to with the verb agree, but with different meanings. For example, we say, We agree with you about a certain matter; and, We agree to the proposal which you make.

Ask. We ask a favor of a person. We ask a friend for a favor. We ask about some one or thing that we wish to hear about.

Charge. There are several prepositions we can use with the verb charge. Your grocer charges you for the things that you buy. If you run an account you are charged with a certain amount. These things are charged to you; but in war the enemy charges upon you.

Compare. One thing is compared with another in quality, but it is compared to another when we are using the comparison for an illustration.

Complain. We make complaint to the manager of the things we do not like.

Comply. We comply with the request of another, but he does a thing in compliance with that request. Do not use the preposition to with compliance.

Correspond. With correspond, we use either the preposition with or to. For example, I may correspond with you, meaning that I communicate with you by letter, but one thing corresponds to another, meaning that it is like the other.

Disgust. We are disgusted with our friends sometimes at the things which they do. We are disgusted with people and at things.

Reconcile. With reconcile, we use either the preposition with or to. For example, I may become reconciled with you; that is, I am restored to friendship or favor after an estrangement. But we reconcile one thing to another; that is, we harmonize one thing with another.

Taste. We have a taste for music, art or literature, but we enjoy the taste of good things to eat. When taste refers to one of the five senses, use the preposition of, but when you use it to mean intellectual relish or enjoyment, use the preposition for.

Exercise 2

Mark all of the prepositional phrases in the following poem:

THE ANGEL OF DISCONTENT

When the world was formed and the morning stars

Upon their paths were sent,

The loftiest-browed of the angels was made

The Angel of Discontent.

And he dwelt with man in the caves of the hills,

Where the crested serpents sting,

And the tiger tears and the she-wolf howls,

And he told of better things.

And he led them forth to the towered town,

And forth to the fields of corn,

And told of the ampler work ahead,

For which his race was born.

And he whispers to men of those hills he sees

In the blush of the misty west;

And they look to the heights of his lifted eye—

And they hate the name of rest.

In the light of that eye does the slave behold

A hope that is high and brave;

And the madness of war comes into his blood—

For he knows himself a slave.

The serfs of wrong by the light of that eye

March with victorious songs;

For the strength of the right comes into their hearts

When they behold their wrongs.

'Tis by the light of that lifted eye

That error's mists are rent;

A guide to the table-lands of Truth

Is the Angel of Discontent.

And still he looks with his lifted eye,

And his glance is far away,

On a light that shines on the glimmering hills

Of a diviner day.

—Sam Walter Foss.

Exercise 3

Mark all of the prepositions in the following poem. Write the entire phrases and mark the word which is the object of the preposition. For example, in the phrase in the second line; from a rich dream, dream is the object of the preposition from; and a and rich modify the noun dream.

Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase)

Awoke one night from a rich dream of peace,

And saw, within the moonlight of his room,

Making it rich, and like a lily in bloom,

An angel, writing in a book of gold.

Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold,

And to the Presence in the room he said,

"What writest thou?" The Vision raised its head,

And, with a look made of all sweet accord,

Answered, "The names of those who love the Lord."

"And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so,"

Replied the Angel. Abou spoke, more low,

But cheerily still; and said, "I pray thee, then,

Write me as one that loves his fellow-men."

The angel wrote and vanished. The next night

It came again, with a great wakening light,

And showed the names whom love of God had blessed,

And lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest.

—Leigh Hunt.

SPELLING

LESSON 19

There are a few prepositions which might really be called derivative prepositions.

1. A few prepositions are formed from verbs. These are really participle prepositions, for they are the present participles of the verbs but have come to be used like prepositions. These are such as concerning, excepting, regarding, respecting, during, according, etc. Nearly all of these participle prepositions can be expressed by a preposition phrase, as for example, we can either say; I wrote regarding these facts, or I wrote you in regard to these facts. I mentioned them all excepting the last, or, I mentioned them all with the exception of the last. I have gone according to the directions, or, I have gone in accord with the directions.

2. Derivative prepositions are also formed by prefixing a to other parts of speech, as along, around, abroad, etc. Strictly speaking these might be called compound prepositions for the prefix a is really from the preposition on.

3. We have also compound prepositions formed:

By uniting two prepositions, as into, within, throughout, etc.

By uniting a preposition and some other part of speech, usually a noun or an adjective, as beside, below and beyond.

We also have a number of compound verbs which are made by prefixing a preposition to a verb. Some of these compound words have quite a different meaning from the meaning conveyed by the two words used separately; as for example, the compound verb withstand, derived from the preposition with and the verb stand, has almost the opposite meaning from stand with.

Our spelling lesson this week includes a number of these compound verbs formed by the use of the verb and a preposition. Look up the meaning in the dictionary. Use them in sentences in the compound form; then the two words separately as a verb and a preposition and note the difference in the meaning.

Monday

- Upset

- Withdraw

- Outrun

- Overlook

- Understand

Tuesday

- Oversee

- Undergo

- Outnumber

- Withhold

- Overcome

Wednesday

- Overflow

- Undertake

- Overreach

- Overthrow

- Outshine

Thursday

- Overhear

- Withstand

- Overgrow

- Overhaul

- Overrun

Friday

- Concerning

- Regarding

- Respecting

- According

- Excepting

Saturday

- Against

- Throughout

- Around

- Between

- Beneath

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 20

Dear Comrade:

We are taking up in this lesson the study of the last important part of speech. We have spent some little time on the study of these parts of speech, but it has been time well spent. We cannot use good English and construct sentences that express our thoughts without an adequate knowledge of the words we use in sentence building. As soon as we finish the study of the parts of speech, we will spend several weeks in sentence building. This will give us a review of these lessons in which we have studied separate words.

The English language is one of the most interesting of all to study. It is the most truly international of all languages, for the English language contains words from almost every language in the world. Did you ever stop to think that we could have internationalism in language as well as in other things? We can be as narrowly patriotic concerning words as concerning anything else.

Nations have been prone to consider all those who do not speak their language as barbarians. Germany, perhaps, possesses as strong a nationalistic spirit as any country, and in Germany this spirit has found expression in a society formed for the purpose of keeping all foreign words out of the German language. They have published handbooks of native words for almost every department of modern life. They insist that the people use these words, instead of foreign importations. The German State takes great pride in the German language and considers it the most perfect of any spoken today. The rulers of Germany believe that it is a part of their duty to the world to see that all other nations speak the German language. In conquered Poland, only German is permitted to be taught in the schools or to be spoken as the language of commerce. The patriots in language seem to believe that there is some connection between purity of language and purity of race.

In English, however, we have the beginnings of an international speech. Our civilization is derived from various sources. Here in America we are truly the melting-pot of the nations, and this is mirrored forth in our language which is, in a way, a melting-pot also, in which have been thrown words from every tongue. Those for whom nationalism is an important thing will probably cling to the idea of a pure unmixed language, but to those of us to whom Internationalism is not an empty word, but a living ideal, an international language becomes also part of the ideal.

There is a wealth of wonderful literature open to us once we have gained a command of the English language. Pay especial attention to the quotations given in each lesson. These are quotations from the very best literature. If there are any of them that arouse your interest and you would like to read more from the same author, write us and we shall be glad to furnish you full information concerning further reading.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

CONJUNCTIONS

328. You remember that in Lesson 3, where we studied the parts of speech, we found that we had another connective word besides the preposition,—the conjunction.

A preposition connects two words and shows what one of them has to do with the other. The conjunction plays a different part as a connective, for it connects not only words but also phrases and clauses. Note the following sentences:

- Shall we be men or machines?

- We must struggle for ourselves and for our children.

- We pray for peace but furnish ammunition for war.

The use of the conjunction saves a great deal of tiresome repetition, for, by its use, where two subjects have the same predicate or two predicates have the same subject, we can combine it all into one sentence.

You will readily realize how important this part of speech is to us. If we did not have conjunctions our speech would be cumbersome and we would have to use a great many short sentences and a great deal of repetition. If we wanted to make the same statement concerning a number of things, without conjunctions, we would have each time to repeat the entire statement. Try to write a description of a scene and avoid the use of conjunctions and you will see what an important part these connective words play in our power of expression.

Without the use of the conjunction, you would necessarily use a great many short expressions and repeat the same words again and again, and your description would be a jerky, tiresome, unsatisfactory piece of writing.

Exercise 1

Rewrite the following sentences, writing in separate sentences the clauses that are united by the conjunctions:

1. The birds are singing and spring is here.

2. We talk of peace, but war still rages.

3. The unemployed cannot find work and they are dying of hunger.

4. We believed in war for defense and every nation is now fighting for defense.

5. We believe in education and we are struggling for universal education.

6. The old order is fast passing and the new order is rapidly appearing.

7. Profit is the keynote of the present, but service shall be the keynote of the future.

8. All children should be in school, but thousands must earn their bread.

Note that these sentences are made up of two or more simple sentences combined; and each of these simple sentences is called a clause, and each clause must contain a subject and a predicate.

Exercise 2

Rewrite the following simple sentences, using conjunctions to avoid a repetition of the same subject and predicate. Rewrite these into a paragraph, making as well written a paragraph as you possibly can:

- One hundred years ago the workers fought for universal education.

- As a result we have our public schools of today.

- Our public schools have been our chief bulwark against oppression.

- Our public schools are our chief bulwark against oppression.

- Our public schools are our greatest safeguard for the protection of such liberty as we enjoy.

- Our public school system embodies a socialistic ideal.

- Our public school system is the most democratic of our institutions.

- There has been a subtle subversion of the ideal.

- The public school system has been made to serve the master class.

- We have spent millions to make the ideal a reality.

- Have we realized the ideal?

- Is there universal education?

- Is there education for every child beneath the flag?

- The grounds of our public schools have cost millions.

- The buildings have cost millions.

- The courses of study are many.

- They are varied.

- They are elaborate.

- But the workers of the world do not enjoy this feast.

- The children of the workers do not enjoy this feast.

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS

329. Conjunctions are divided into classes, as are other parts of speech, according to the work which they do. Notice the following sentences and notice how the use of a different conjunction changes the meaning of the sentence.

- We are united and we shall win.

- When we are united, we shall win.

In the first sentence the conjunction and connects the two clauses, we are united and we shall win. They are both independent clauses, neither is dependent upon the other, and both are of equal importance. But by the use of the conjunction when, instead of the conjunction and, we have changed the meaning of the sentence. There is quite a difference in saying, We are united and we shall win, and When we are united we shall win.

By connecting these two statements with the conjunction when, we have made of the clause, we are united, a dependent clause, it modifies the verb phrase shall win. It tells when we shall win, just as much as if we had used an adverb to modify the verb phrase, and had said, We shall win tomorrow, instead of, We shall win when we are united.

So in these two sentences we have two different kinds of conjunctions, the conjunction and, which connects clauses of equal rank or order, and the conjunction when, which connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.

330. So the conjunctions like and are called co-ordinate conjunctions. Co-ordinate means literally of equal rank or order. Conjunctions like when are called sub-ordinate conjunctions. Sub-ordinate means of inferior rank or order.

So we have our definitions:

331. A conjunction is a word that connects words or phrases or clauses.

A co-ordinate conjunction is one that joins words, phrases or clauses having the same rank.

A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.

CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

332. Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses of equal rank. The most commonly used co-ordinate conjunctions are; and, but, or, nor.

333. But there are a number of words which we often use as adverbs, which may also be used as co-ordinate conjunctions. These words are not always conjunctions, for they are sometimes used as adverbs. When they are used as conjunctions they retain something of their adverbial meaning; but still they are conjunctions, for they are used to show the connection between two clauses of equal rank. Thus:

- I am not in favor of the motion, nevertheless I shall vote for it.

- The deputies voted for the war appropriation, notwithstanding they had carried on an extensive anti-war propaganda.

- I did not believe in the change, however I did not oppose it.

334. The co-ordinate conjunctions which we use with this adverbial meaning also, are; therefore, hence, still, besides, consequently, yet, likewise, moreover, else, than, also, accordingly, nevertheless, notwithstanding, otherwise, however, so and furthermore.

These conjunctions always refer to what has been said before and serve to introduce and connect new statements.

335. We often use these conjunctions, and also, and, but, or, and nor, at the beginning of a separate sentence or paragraph to connect it in meaning with that which has gone before. You will often see the use of these conjunctions as the first word of a new paragraph, thus relating this paragraph to that which has preceded it.

336. Co-ordinate conjunctions connect words of equal rank.

NOUNS

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the subject of a verb. As:

- Death and disaster follow in the wake of war.

In this sentence, death is just as much the subject of the verb follow as is the word disaster, but no more so. You can omit either of these words and the other will make a subject for the sentence. They are both of equal importance, both of the same rank in the sentence, and neither depends upon the other. These two words taken together form the subject of the sentence. This is called the compound subject, for it consists of two simple subjects.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the object of a verb.

- He studies history and science.

In this sentence the words history and science are both used as objects of the verb studies.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two or more nouns used as the object of a preposition.

- He called for the letters and the papers.

In this sentence letters and papers are both objects of the preposition for, connected by the co-ordinate conjunction and.

Exercise 3

Note in the following sentences the nouns which are connected by conjunctions and decide whether they are used as the subject of the sentences or the object of verbs or of prepositions. Draw a line under compound subjects.

1. John and Henry are going home.

2. Music and painting are fine arts.

3. The grounds and buildings of our public schools have cost millions.

4. The time calls for brave men and women.

5. We struggle for truth and freedom.

6. Will you study English or arithmetic?

7. Education and organization are necessary for success.

8. We must learn the truth about production and distribution.

9. We demand justice and liberty.

10. The great struggle is between the working class and the ruling class.

PRONOUNS

337. Co-ordinate conjunctions may also connect pronouns.

These are used in the same way as nouns,—either as subject or object. Nouns have the same form whether used as subject or object. Pronouns, however, have different forms when used as the object. Here is where we often make mistakes in the use of pronouns. When the pronouns are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions they are of the same rank and are used in the same construction;—if they are used as subjects both must be used in the subject form;—if they are used as objects, both must be used in the object form. For example, it is incorrect to say, He told the story to her and I. Here her is properly used in the object form, for it is the object of the preposition to; the pronoun I connected with her by the use of the conjunction and is also the object of the preposition to, and the object form should be used. You would not say, He told the story to I. The sentence should read, He told the story to her and me.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the subject of a sentence, as for example:

- She and I arrived today.

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the object of the verb, as for example:

- Did you call her or me?

Co-ordinate conjunctions may connect two pronouns used as the object of the preposition, as:

- He gave that to you and me.

Exercise 4

Study closely the following sentences and correct those in which the wrong form of the pronoun is used.

1. He and I are old friends.

2. Did you ask him or me?

3. They promised him and I that they would come.

4. Find the place for she and me.

5. Me and him will get it for you and she.

6. She and I will go with you.

7. You and I must decide matters for ourselves.

8. You will find him and her to be loyal comrades.

VERBS

338. Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect verbs. Verbs connected in this way have the same subject; and with the use of the conjunction to connect the verbs, we save repeating the subject.

- He reads and studies constantly.

In this sentence reads and studies are words of the same kind and of the same rank; either could be omitted and the other would make a predicate for the sentence. They are of equal importance in the sentence and are connected by the conjunction and. They have a single subject, the pronoun he.

This is called a compound predicate.

In the sentence, He reads constantly, we have a simple predicate, the single verb reads; but in the sentence, He reads and studies constantly, we have a compound predicate, compound of the two verbs reads and studies. A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate. As, for example:

- John and James read and study constantly.

In this sentence John and James is the compound subject of both the verbs, read and study. So we have a compound subject and a compound predicate.

Exercise 5

Notice the verbs in the following sentences connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. Draw lines under each compound predicate.

1. The days come and go in a ceaseless round.

2. The brave man dreams and dares to live the dream.

3. The coward dreams but dares not live the dream.

4. We produce splendidly but distribute miserably.

5. The bought press twists and distorts the facts.

6. Only a traitor aids or supports the enemy.

7. We agitate and educate for the cause of liberty.

ADJECTIVES

339. Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect adjectives.

In this way we use a number of adjectives to modify the same word without tiresome repetition. When several adjectives are used to modify the same word, the conjunction is used only between the last two adjectives. As, for example:

A simple, clear and concise course has been prepared.

Exercise 6

In the following sentences, underscore the adjectives which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions.

1. The plains of France are covered with the dead and dying soldiers.

2. Education should be both universal and free.

3. They are faithful and loyal comrades.

4. This was only our just and legal right.

5. Old and hoary was the man who sat on the stool by the fireless and godless altar.

6. The service of humanity is a sweet and noble task.

7. We must be brave and true.

8. He lived a noble and courageous life.

9. All was old and cold and mournful.

10. Most powerful and eloquent is the voice of the disinherited.

ADVERBS

340. Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect adverbs. This gives us the power to describe the action expressed in verbs without the tiresome repetition of the verb. For example:

- He spoke fluently and eloquently.

Exercise 7

In the following sentences underscore the adverbs which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions:

1. Man selfishly and greedily prevents his fellow men from the enjoyment of nature's bounties.

2. She is wonderfully and gloriously brave.

3. He speaks eloquently and impressively, but very slowly.

4. Nature has provided lavishly and bountifully for her children.

5. Advice spoken truly and wisely is always in season.

6. We must resist injustice bravely and courageously.

7. He feels keenly and deeply the wrongs of his class.

8. He writes easily and rapidly.

9. The words, calmly and coolly spoken, were instantly opposed.

10. He reached that conclusion naturally and inevitably.

11. He was gently but unwaveringly firm.

12. The revolution comes slowly but surely.

PHRASES

341. Co-ordinate conjunctions are used, not only to connect words, but also to connect phrases.

Verb Phrases

342. Verb phrases may be connected by conjunctions. For example:

- The People's College is owned and controlled by the working class.

- We have made and are making a fierce struggle for a free press.

In this last sentence the two verb phrases, have made and are making are connected by the co-ordinate conjunction and. Often in using verb phrases, we use phrases in which the same helping verb occurs in both phrases. When this is the case the helping verb is quite often omitted in the second phrase and only the participle is connected by the conjunction. As, for example:

- The People's College is owned and controlled by the working class.

In this sentence the helping verb is belongs in both the phrases but is omitted in the second phrase in order to make a smoother sounding sentence. In the second phrase, only the past participle controlled is used. It is understood that we mean,

The People's College is owned and is controlled by the working class.

Exercise 8

Note the use of the conjunction in the following sentences to connect the verb phrases. Supply the helping verb where it is omitted.

1. Our system of education is rooted and grounded in outgrown dogmas.

2. We have written but have received no answer.

3. Will you come or stay?

4. Man must struggle or remain in slavery.

5. The workers are organizing and demanding their rights.

6. We must arouse and educate our comrades.

7. We have sought but have not found.

Prepositional Phrases

343. Co-ordinate conjunctions are used to connect prepositional phrases.

These phrases may be used as adjective phrases. For example:

- The books in the book case and on the table belong to me.

These phrases may be used as adverb phrases. For example:

- He works with speed and with ease.

Exercise 9

Note in the following sentences, the prepositional phrases which are connected by co-ordinate conjunctions. Mark which are used as adjective and which as adverb phrases.

1. Education is the road out of ignorance and into the light.

2. The army charged over the plain and up the hill.

3. The first men lived in groups and in clans.

4. Democracy means government of the people and by the people.

5. Shall we take the path toward progress or toward barbarism.

6. They are not fighting for their country but for their king.

7. Human rights are not protected by the law nor by the courts.

8. The problem of the working class and of society is the problem of equitable distribution.

9. They are deceived by their leaders and by their press.

10. You can pay either by the week or by the month.

11. Our government is not the rule of the majority but of the minority.

Infinitives and Participles

344. Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect infinitives and participles.

Exercise 10

In the following sentences mark the infinitives and participles connected by co-ordinate conjunctions.

1. Those words will inspire us to dream and to dare.

2. We shall learn to produce and to distribute.

3. To be or not to be, that is the question.

4. Puffing and panting, the great engine pulled up to the station.

5. A cringing and trembling coward fears to demand his own.

6. The warped and twisted facts in the daily press deceive the masses.

7. Singing and dancing should be enjoyed by all children.

8. The exploiting and robbing of the people is made a virtue in ruling class ethics.

CLAUSES

345. Co-ordinate conjunctions are also used to connect clauses of equal rank. For example:

- The floods came and the winds blew.

Each of these clauses is a complete sentence in itself, but they are combined into one compound sentence by the use of the co-ordinate conjunction, and. Clauses united in this way may have a compound subject and a compound predicate, but two complete clauses must be united by a co-ordinate conjunction in order to form a compound sentence. For example:

- The rain and snow fell, and the wind blew a mighty gale.

Here the first clause in the compound sentence, the rain and snow fell, contains a compound subject, rain and snow.

- The boys are running and shouting, and the girls are gathering flowers.

Here the first clause has a compound predicate, are running and shouting. The second and connects the two clauses forming the compound sentence.

CORRELATIVES

346. Certain co-ordinate conjunctions are used in pairs, such as both, and; either, or; neither, nor; whether, or. These pairs are called correlatives. The first word in the pair, as, both, either, neither, or whether, is used as an assistant conjunction helping the other to do the connecting. These are used in such sentences as:

- I have both seen and heard him.

- They will join us either in April or in May.

- Labor has received neither liberty nor justice.

- Whether to go forward or to retreat was the problem.

Note that nor is always the proper correlative to use with neither and also with the negatives not and never when they apply to what follows as well as to what precedes. For example:

- There are thousands in this country who can neither read nor write.

- Neither you nor I can foretell the future.

- He will not write nor should you.

- Capital punishment is nothing more nor less than legalized murder.

- We shall never lower our colors nor retreat.

Or is always used with the correlative either. For example:

- We will either come or write you.

- Either he was mistaken or he deliberately lied.

Exercise 11

Note the use of the co-ordinate conjunctions and, but, or and nor, in the following quotation. Mark especially the use of and as an introductory conjunction, introducing a new sentence, but connecting it with that which has gone before.

In my judgment slavery is the child of ignorance. Liberty is born of intelligence. Only a few years ago there was a great awakening in the human mind. Men began to inquire, "By what right does a crowned robber make me work for him?" The man who asked this question was called a traitor.

They said then, and they say now, that it is dangerous for the mind of man to be free. I deny it. Out on the intellectual sea there is room for every sail. In the intellectual air, there is space enough for every wing. And the man who does not do his own thinking is a slave, and does not do his duty to his fellow men. For one, I expect to do my own thinking. And I will take my oath this minute that I will express what thoughts I have, honestly and sincerely. I am the slave of no man and of no organization. I stand under the blue sky and the stars, under the infinite flag of nature, the peer of every human being.

All I claim, all I plead is simple liberty of thought. That is all. I do not pretend to tell what is true nor all the truth. I do not claim that I have floated level with the heights of thought, nor that I have descended to the depths of things; I simply claim that what ideas I have, I have a right to express, and any man that denies it to me is an intellectual thief and robber.

Every creed that we have today has upon it the mark of the whip or the chain or the fagot. I do not want it. Free labor will give us wealth, and has given us wealth, and why? Because a free brain goes into partnership with a free hand. That is why. And when a man works for his wife and children, the problem of liberty is, how to do the most work in the shortest space of time; but the problem of slavery is, how to do the least work in the longest space of time. Slavery is poverty; liberty is wealth.

It is the same in thought. Free thought will give us truth; and the man who is not in favor of free thought occupies the same relation to those he can govern that the slaveholder occupied to his slaves, exactly. Free thought will give us wealth. There has not been a generation of free thought yet. It will be time to write a creed when there have been a few generations of free-brained men and splendid women in this world. I don't know what the future may bring forth; I don't know what inventions are in the brain of the future; I don't know what garments may be woven, with the years to come; but I do know, coming from the infinite sea of the future, there will never touch this "bank and shoal of time" a greater blessing nor a grander glory, than liberty for man, woman and child.

Oh, liberty! Float not forever in the far horizon! Remain not forever in the dream of the enthusiast and the poet and the philanthropist. But come and take up thine abode with the children of men forever.—Ingersoll.

SPELLING

LESSON 20

We found that we often formed adjectives by adding suffixes to other words. We also form many adverbs by the addition of suffixes to other words. Derivative adverbs are formed in the following ways:

1. By adding suffixes to adjectives, chiefly the suffix ly, as for example; chiefly, truly, really, lately, etc.

2. By changing ble to bly, as in ably, nobly, etc.

3. By adding the suffix ward, as in forward, upward, skyward, downward, homeward, etc.

4. We have some adverbs formed by adding the prefix a to adjectives and nouns, as ahead, afoot, afresh, also by adding the prefix be, as in besides, beyond.

We often misspell a number of adverbs by adding s where it does not rightfully belong; as, anywheres, everywheres, backwards, forwards, towards, upwards, downwards, afterwards, homewards, etc. All of these words should be written without the s.

We also have a number of compound adverbs which are made by the union of two other parts of speech, such as sometime, henceforth, forever, overheard, outside, etc.

In the lesson for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, adjectives are given having opposite meanings. Make the proper adverbs from these adjectives by the addition of the suffix ly.

Thursday's and Friday's lessons are made up of both adjectives and adverbs that end in ly. Look up in your dictionary and be sure you know which are adjectives and which are adverbs.

Saturday's lesson is made up of compound adverbs.

Monday

- Haughty—Humble

- Wise—Ignorant

- Careful—Careless

- Firm—Wavering

Tuesday

- Honest—Deceitful

- Fearful—Fearless

- Punctual—Tardy

- Identical—Different

Wednesday

- Thoughtful—Thoughtless

- Rich—Poor

- Attentive—Inattentive

- Industrious—Lazy

Thursday

- Quickly

- Lovely

- Clearly

- Cleanly

Friday

- Homely

- Truly

- Courtly

- Nearly

Saturday

- Otherwise

- Herewith

- Sometime

- Always

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 21

Dear Comrade:

In this lesson we are completing the study of conjunctions. We have studied the conjunction last among the parts of speech and in the order of the development of language, the conjunction naturally comes last. The need of connective words does not come in any language until the language is quite well developed. You will notice that the connective words, such as prepositions and conjunctions are the last words the child begins to use. The child first begins to use the names of the things with which it comes in contact, then it learns the words that express what these things do. But it is not until the child begins to reason that it begins to use connective words. These become necessary when we have reached a stage of development where we can consider the relationship existing between things.

The use of conjunctions, however, can be greatly overdone. The long and involved sentences are more difficult to understand. If you will note the authors which you enjoy the most, it will probably be those who use short and crisp sentences. We have some authors who by the use of conjunctions can string one sentence out over several pages. You wonder how they manage to exist so long without stopping for breath. It is very easy for us to fall into this error when we are thinking rapidly and our thoughts all seem to be closely connected. But no mind can grasp many ideas at one time. Break your sentences up and express your ideas concisely and clearly. Use conjunctions rather sparingly, especially these subordinate conjunctions. Do not have too many subordinate clauses in one sentence.

Notice in your reading for this week those who use the short, crisp sentences and those who use the longer and more involved sentences. Notice which are understood more readily and which are more enjoyable to read. Take some of the paragraphs from those who write long and involved sentences and break them up into short sentences and see if these shorter sentences do not make the meaning simpler and clearer. This will be excellent practice also in gaining the power of expression.

Especially in the class struggle do we need those who can write clearly and simply of the great problems of the day. As the work of the world is conducted today, the workers have too little time for reading. They are apt, after a hard day's work, to be too tired to follow an author through long, winding, involved passages.

In the spoken word, this is also true. You will find your hearers much more in sympathy with you if you will use short sentences. Break your thought up so they can readily grasp your meaning and follow you to your conclusion.

Conjunctions are very important to save us from tiresome repetitions and short, jerky sentences, but we must avoid using them too frequently.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

347. We have found that co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases and also clauses that are entirely independent; that is, they do not depend in the slightest degree upon any other word, phrase or clause. Subordinate conjunctions connect inferior clauses to the main clauses of the sentence. These inferior clauses are dependent clauses. Subordinate conjunctions never connect words or phrases; but only dependent clauses, to the rest of the sentence. Note the following sentences:

- He came quickly.

- He came on time.

- He came when he was called.

In the first sentence the word quickly is an adverb modifying the verb came and answers the question when. It tells when he came. In the second sentence, the phrase on time is an adverb phrase modifying the verb came, and answers the question when. It tells when he came. In the third sentence, the clause when he was called, also answers the question when, and tells when he came. Therefore, it is a clause used as an adverb. It is different from the phrase on time, for the phrase on time does not contain a subject and a predicate.

348. The difference between the phrase and the clause is that the phrase does not contain either a subject or a predicate, while the clause always contains both a subject and a predicate. So in the clause, when he was called, he is the subject and was called is the predicate, and when is the subordinate conjunction, which connects this adverb clause to the verb came, which it modifies. The clause he came, and the clause when he was called, are not of equal rank and importance, because the clause, when he was called, simply modifies the verb contained in the clause he came, by describing the time of the action expressed in the verb came. So the clause, when he was called, is a subordinate or dependent clause, and the conjunctions which connect this class of clauses to the main clause are called subordinate conjunctions.

349. A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.

CLASSES OF SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

350. Most subordinate conjunctions are used to make adverb clauses. These clauses will answer some one of the questions answered by adverbs. They will tell how, when, where or why the action expressed in the verb in the principal clause occurred. There are six classes of these subordinate conjunctions which are used to introduce adverb clauses. They introduce:

351. Adverb clause of time. These clauses will answer the question when and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, before, since, as, while, until, when, after and as soon as. Notice in the following sentences the difference made in the meaning of the sentences by the use of the different conjunctions:

- We waited until you came.

- We waited after you came.

- We waited as you came.

- We waited before you came.

- We waited since you came.

- We left while you were gone.

- We left when you were gone.

- We left as soon as you were gone.

352. Adverb clause of place. These answer the question where, and are introduced by the conjunctions, where, whence, whither.

- I will go where you go.

- The wind blows whither it listeth.

- He went whence he came.

353. Adverb clauses expressing cause or reason. These will answer the question why. They are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, because, for, since, as, whereas, inasmuch as, etc.

Note the difference in the meaning of the following sentences expressed by the use of different conjunctions:

- I will come because you expect me.

- I will come since you expect me.

- I will come as you expect me.

- I will come for you expect me.

- I will come inasmuch as you expect me.

354. Adverb clauses of manner. These clauses will answer the question how, and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, as, as if, as though, etc.

- Study as though you were in earnest.

- Come as if you had been called.

- Do as I say, not as I do.

In these clauses of manner, introduced by as if, and as though, were is used in the present form with either singular or plural subjects. For example:

- He writes as if he were informed of the facts.

- They talk as though they were confident of success.

- You act as though I were your slave.

355. Adverb clauses of comparison. These clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions than and as. The verbs are often omitted in these dependent clauses introduced by than and as. For example: He is taller than I. The complete sentence would be: He is taller than I am. He is not so tall as I. Here the sentence would be: He is not so tall as I am.

When the pronoun occurs in these dependent clauses, be sure to use the proper form of the pronoun. It may be the subject or the object of the verb which is not expressed. For example; it is incorrect to say: I am not so tall as him. The correct form is: I am not so tall as he. The complete sentence would be: I am not so tall as he is, and the pronoun should be in the subject form, for it is the subject of the verb is, which is understood and omitted.

The use of the subject or of the object form may make a difference in the meaning of your sentence. For example, you say: I admire them as much as he. You mean that you admire them as much as he admires them. But if you say, I admire them as much as him, you mean that you admire them as much as you admire him. Quite a different meaning!

Be careful in the use of your pronouns in this way, for you can express quite a different meaning. For example, if you say, I care more for you than he, you mean, I care more for you than he cares for you. But if you say, I care more for you than him, you mean, I care more for you than I care for him. A mistake like this might mean a great deal to you some time, if the one to whom you had been speaking had been studying a course in Plain English!

356. Adverb clauses of condition. These clauses are introduced by such conjunctions as, if, provided, supposing, unless, except, otherwise, though, notwithstanding, albeit, and whether. For example:

- I will come if you need me.

- I will come provided you need me.

- I will go notwithstanding you need me.

- I will not go unless I am called.

- He will not go except he is called.

- He will not go though he is called.

- He came, otherwise I would go.

- He will go whether you go or stay.

When subordinate clauses beginning with if, though or unless are joined to clauses containing might, could, would or should, the verb were is sometimes used with a singular subject, in such sentences as:

- If this were true, I should know it.

- Unless I were positive, I would not say so.

- Though our leader were lost, yet we would not despair.

- If he were here, he would explain it himself.

- If I were with you, I might make you understand.

Sometimes in sentences like these, if is omitted in the clause, and the verb placed first. For example:

- Were he here, he would deny these slanders.

- Were he truly class-conscious, he would oppose this war.

- Were this fact known, the people would never submit.

These clauses express something which is uncertain, or which is to be decided in the future; a supposition contrary to a fact or a wish. Occasionally you will find the verb be used instead of is, in clauses of this kind introduced by if, though, unless, except, lest, etc. For example:

- If it be true, I will hear it.

- Though he be guilty, we will not desert him.

In subordinate clauses connected by if, unless, etc., with a principal clause which expresses future time, the present form of the verb is used in the subordinate clause. For example:

- If they are willing, we will join them.

- Unless he comes, I shall not leave.

- If it rains, we will not go.

357. Adverb clauses expressing purpose. These are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, that, in order that and lest. For example:

- Take good care that you understand this lesson.

- I will go today in order that I may meet him.

- Watch these carefully lest they be stolen.

- Read the labor press that you may know the truth.

Notice that that, when used in this way, as a pure conjunction, means in order that. For example, the sentence above might read:

- Read the labor press in order that you may know the truth.

358. Adverb clauses expressing result. These are introduced by the subordinate conjunction that, as for example:

- They were so late that I could not go.

SUMMARY

359. We have then adverb clauses introduced by subordinate conjunctions expressing:

1. Time. Answer the question when.

2. Place. Answer the question where.

3. Cause or reason. Answer the question why.

4. Manner. Answer the question how.

5. Comparison. Used to compare.

6. Condition. Answer the question on what condition.

7. Purpose. Answer the question for what purpose.

8. Result. Answer the question to what result.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences, mark the conjunctions and tell to what class they belong; ask the question when, where, why, how, on what condition, for what purpose, to what result. Underscore the subordinate clauses. The subjects of the subordinate clauses are printed in italics.

1. Speech was developed that we might be able to communicate with one another.

2. The International failed in the crisis because it had no definite war program.

3. We will fail if we have no definite program.

4. If labor were united, we could destroy wage slavery.

5. When the people understand, they will no longer submit.

6. Labor cannot win until it learns solidarity.

7. After the terrible war is over, the workers in all countries may come closer together.

8. We are convinced of the folly of nationalism since the war has been declared.

9. If we knew the facts we could not be misled.

10. Inform yourself before you seek to teach others.

11. We must unite in order that we may possess power.

12. It is more than the heart can bear.

13. May you have courage to dare ere you have ceased to dream.

14. If we remain ignorant, we shall remain enslaved.

15. We sometimes fear to trust our own thought because it is our own.

16. Though we should lose the strike we will not despair.

17. The battle waged so fiercely that thousands were slain.

PHRASE CONJUNCTIONS

360. There are certain phrases which have come to be used together as conjunctions so commonly that we may consider them as conjunctions. They are:

As if, as though, but also, but likewise, so that, except that, inasmuch as, notwithstanding that, in order that, as well as, as far as, so far as, as little as, provided that, seeing that, etc.

Exercise 2

Write sentences using these phrase conjunctions to introduce clauses.

NOUN CLAUSES

361. We have found that there are two kinds of clauses, principal clauses and subordinate clauses.

A principal clause is one that does not depend on any word.

A subordinate clause is one that depends upon some word or words in the principal clause.

We have found, also, that these principal clauses are always connected by co-ordinate conjunctions, for they are of equal rank and importance; neither is dependent upon the other.

Subordinate clauses are always connected with the principal clause by a subordinate conjunction. The subordinate clauses which we have been studying have all been adverb clauses which are used to describe the action expressed in the verb contained in the principal clauses.

The subordinate clause in a sentence may also be used as a noun. When the subordinate clause is used as a noun it is called a noun clause.

362. A noun clause is a clause used as a noun.

A noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun is used, except as a possessive. It may be used as a subject, an object, a predicate complement, or in apposition with a noun. These noun clauses may be introduced by either relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns or by conjunctions. For example:

- I know who he is.

- He asked, "what do you want?"

- I know where it is.

In the first sentence, who he is, is a noun clause used as the object of the verb know. It tells what I know, and is the object of the verb know,—just as if I had said; I know the facts. In this sentence the noun, facts, is the object of the verb know.

In the second sentence, He asked, "what do you want?" the noun clause what do you want is the object of the verb asked, and is introduced by the interrogative pronoun what.

We will study in a subsequent lesson the use of noun clauses introduced by relative pronouns. In this lesson we are studying the conjunctions.

In the last sentence, I know where it is, the noun clause where it is, is the object of the verb know, and is introduced by the conjunction where.

363. Noun clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions, where, when, whence, whither, whether, how, why, and also by the subordinate conjunction that. For example:

- I know where I can find it.

- I inquired when he would arrive.

- We do not know whence it cometh nor whither it goeth.

- Ask whether the train has gone.

- I don't know how I can find you.

- I cannot understand why he does so.

- I believe that he is honest.

In all of these examples the noun clauses are used as the objects of the verb. Noun clauses may also be used as objects of prepositions. As, for example:

- You do not listen to what is said.

- He talked to me about what had happened.

- He told me to come to where he was.

364. Noun clauses may also be used as the subject of a sentence. As for example:

- That he is innocent is admitted by all.

- That he was guilty has been proven.

- Why he should do this is very strange.

- How we are to live is the great problem.

In all of these sentences, the noun clause is used as the subject of the verb. You will note that most frequently the noun clause used as subject of the verb is introduced by the subordinate conjunction that. But quite often we write these sentences in a somewhat different way. For example:

- It is admitted by all that he is innocent.

- It has been proven that he was guilty.

You will notice in these sentences we have expressed practically the same thought as in the sentences where the noun clause was used as the subject of the verb.

But now we have this little pronoun it used as the subject, instead of the clause, which is the real subject of the sentence. It is simply used as the introductory word in the sentence. The noun clause is in reality the subject of the sentence.

365. Noun clauses may also be used as the predicate complement with a copulative verb. For example:

- The general opinion is that he is innocent.

- The problem is how we may accomplish this quickly.

- The question was why any one should believe such statements.

In all of these sentences the noun clause is used as the complement of the incomplete verbs is and was, to complete the meaning, just as we use a noun as the predicate complement of a copulative verb in such sentences as, Socialism is a science. War is murder.

366. A noun clause may also be used in apposition to a noun to explain its meaning. Apposition means to place alongside of. Note in the following sentences:

- The fact, that such a law had been passed, alters the situation.

- His motion, that the matter should be laid on the table, was adopted.

In the first sentence, the clause, that such a law had been passed, is placed beside the noun fact and explains what that fact is. The clause, that the matter should be laid on the table, is in apposition to and explains the noun motion.

These noun clauses are used in apposition.

Exercise 3

Complete the following sentences by inserting the appropriate conjunctions and pronouns in the blank spaces:

1. Can you tell......Germany has a million fighting men?

2. Would you be pleased......the United States should intervene in Mexico?

3. The Mexican revolution will continue......the people possess the land.

4. No one may vote in the convention......he has credentials.

5. ......Debs was in Woodstock jail, he became in Socialist.

6. ......the treaty was signed, hostilities ceased.

7. We shall win......we have the courage.

8. ......we have lost this battle we shall not cease to struggle.

9. All are enslaved......one is enslaved.

10. Humanity will be free......labor is free.

11. Let us do our duty......we understand it.

12. Man will never reach his best......he walks side by side with woman.

13. We must struggle......we would be free.

14. ......we shout for peace, we support war.

15. All our sympathies should be with the man......toils,......we know......labor is the foundation of all.

16. ......all have the right to think and to express their thoughts every brain will give to all the best......it has.

17. ......man develops he places greater value upon his own rights.

18. ......man values his own rights he begins to value the rights of others.

19. ......all men give to all others the rights......they claim for themselves this world will be civilized.

Exercise 4

Note all the co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions in the following verses from "The Ballad of Reading Gaol." Underscore the subordinate clauses. Are they adverb or noun clauses? Do the co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases or clauses?

I know not whether Laws be right,

Or whether Laws be wrong;

All that we know who lie in gaol

Is that the wall is strong;

And that each day is like a year,

A year whose days are long.

But this I know, that every Law

That men have made for Man,

Since first Man took his brother's life,

And the sad world began,

But straws the wheat and saves the chaff

With a most evil fan.

This too I know—and wise it were

If each could know the same—

That every prison that men build

Is built with bricks of shame,

And bound with bars lest Christ should see

How men their brothers maim.

With bars they blur the gracious moon,

And blind the goodly sun:

And they do well to hide their Hell,

For in it things are done

That son of God nor son of Man

Ever should look upon!

In Reading gaol by Reading town

There is a pit of shame,

And in it lies a wretched man

Eaten by teeth of flame,

In a burning winding sheet he lies,

And his grave has got no name.

And there, till Christ call forth the dead,

In silence let him lie:

No need to waste the foolish tear,

Or heave the windy sigh:

The man had killed the thing he loved,

And so he had to die.

And all men kill the thing they love,

By all let this be heard,

Some do it with a bitter look,

Some with a flattering word,

The coward does it with a kiss,

The brave man with a sword.

—Oscar Wilde.

SPELLING

LESSON 21

In Lesson No. 17 we studied concerning abstract nouns derived from qualifying adjectives. We found that we formed these nouns expressing quality from adjectives that describe quality by the addition of suffixes.

Adjectives may likewise be formed from nouns and also from verbs by the addition of suffixes. There are a number of suffixes which may be used to form adjectives in this way; as, al, ous, ic, ful, less, able, ible, ary and ory. Notice the following words: nation, national; peril, perilous; reason, reasonable; sense, sensible; custom, customary; advise, advisory; hero, heroic; care, careful, careless.

To some words, more than one suffix may be added and an adjective of different meaning formed; for example, use, useless, useful; care, careless, careful.

Make as many adjectives as you can from the nouns and verbs given in the spelling lesson for this week by the addition of one or more of the following suffixes:

Al, less, ous, ic, ful, able, ible, ary, ory, and ly.

Monday

- Accident

- Danger

- Origin

- Commend

- Element

Tuesday

- Critic

- Libel

- Attain

- Revolution

- Contradict

Wednesday

- Cynic

- Injury

- Respect

- Station

- Migrate

Thursday

- Event

- Parent

- Order

- Virtue

- Marvel

Friday

- Second

- Fashion

- Consider

- Murder

- Incident

Saturday

- Constitution

- Industry

- Vibrate

- Tribute

- Compliment

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 22

Dear Comrade:

We have practically finished the study of the different parts of speech. We are now in possession of a knowledge of the tools which we need to use in expressing ourselves. We are ready to make practical application of this knowledge in writing and speaking. We will find that with our increasing ability to express ourselves there comes also the power to think clearly. The analysis of language has meant a growing power to think on the part of the people.

We sometimes imagine that simplicity of language was a part of primitive life, but this is not true. Simplicity of language is the product of high civilization. Primitive life was marked, not by simplicity of language, but by the scarcity of language. They made one word stand for an entire sentence, and if they wished to express a little different meaning, an entirely different word had to be used, as for example, in the primitive language: I said to her, would be one word, and I said to him, would be another, entirely different, word.

But as the power of thought began to develop, we began to analyze our meaning and we found that this thought was identical except the him and the her. So as we analyzed our thought our expression of it became more simple. In most languages, the different meaning of the verb, for example, is expressed by an arbitrary change in the verb form. This is called the inflection of the verb. In English we would use several words to express the same thing. For example, the Latin word Fuissem requires four English words to express the same meaning; I should have been, we say in English. So instead of having to learn a great number of different changes in the verb form, we, by the use of auxiliary verbs, have, shall, do, be, etc., are able to express all these shades of thought much more simply and clearly.

Most other languages also have changes for gender. Every noun has a gender of its own and sometimes this form gives the wrong gender to living beings and attributes sex to sexless objects and the only way to know the gender of the noun is simply by memory. Then the adjectives, possessive pronouns and the articles a and the have gender also and have to be changed to suit the gender of the noun; this involves a great effort of memory. So while the English may seem somewhat involved to you, it is, after all, much simpler than other languages. It has been freed from many superfluous endings and unnecessary complications.

Take a little time each day to read something out of the best literature. The quotations given in each of these lessons are from our very best writers. A study of these will be a wonderful help and inspiration to you and bring you in touch with some of the great thinkers of the revolution. They are our comrades and are putting into words the thoughts and hopes and dreams of our lives.

Yours for the Revolution,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

367. In our study of subordinate clauses, we have studied subordinate clauses used as adverbs and as nouns. We have found that adverb clauses can be used in the same way as adverbs, to describe the time, place, manner, cause, condition or purpose of the action expressed in the verb. We have found, also, that a noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun can be used, as the subject of the sentence, the object of a verb or preposition or as the predicate complement. But these are not the only uses to which the subordinate clause may be put. Note the following sentences:

- Wealthy men desire to control the education of the people.

- Men of wealth desire to control the education of the people.

- Men who are wealthy desire to control the education of the people.

Do you see any difference in the words which are used to modify the noun men? In the first sentence, wealthy is an adjective, modifying the noun men. In the second sentence, of wealth is a prepositional phrase, used as an adjective modifying the noun men. In the last sentence, who are wealthy is a clause used in exactly the same way that the adjective wealthy and the adjective phrase of wealth are used, to modify the noun men.

We have expressed practically the same meaning in these three ways: by a word; by a phrase; by a clause.

368. A word used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective.

A phrase used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective phrase.

A clause used to describe and modify a noun is an adjective clause.

Note the difference between a phrase and a clause.

369. A prepositional phrase, used as an adjective, consists of the preposition and the noun which is its object, together with its modifiers. A phrase never has either a subject or a predicate. Who are wealthy, is a clause because it does contain a subject and a predicate. The pronoun who is the subject in the clause, and the predicate is the copulative verb are with the predicate complement, the adjective wealthy.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences change the adjective into a phrase and also into a clause, if possible. For example:

- A fearless man always defends his rights.

- A man without fear always defends his rights.

- A man who is fearless always defends his rights.

1. The unemployed men are becoming desperate.

2. The uneducated masses are demanding equal opportunity.

3. The discovery of gold was an important discovery.

4. Unorganized labor is helpless.

5. The revolution needs intelligent rebels.

6. A few wealthy men are striving to control education.

7. This will be a progressive movement.

8. Labor-saving inventions throw men out of employment.

9. Scientific men prophesy a great advance for the mass.

THE INTRODUCING WORD

370. You will notice that these adjective clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns who, which and that. These relative pronouns fulfil something of the office of a conjunction, because they are serving as connecting elements; they join these subordinate clauses to the words which they modify. But you will note, also, that these relative pronouns not only serve as connecting elements, but they also play a part in the subordinate clause, as either the subject or object. For example:

- The man who has no education is handicapped in the struggle.

- Are these the books that you ordered?

In the first sentence, who has an education is an adjective clause modifying the noun man, introduced by the relative pronoun who, which is also the subject of the verb has.

In the second sentence, that you ordered is an adjective clause, modifying the noun books, introduced by the relative pronoun that, which is also the object of the verb ordered.

371. There is no need to be confused in this matter of clauses. If the clause is used as a noun, either as the subject or the object or in any other way in which a noun can be used, it is a noun clause. If it is used as an adverb and will answer any of the questions why, when, where, or how, etc., it is an adverb clause. If it is used as an adjective,—if it modifies a noun or pronoun,—it is an adjective clause.

You will note that the only way in which a noun is used that does not have its corresponding clause is as a possessive. We do not have possessive clauses. The clause used as an adjective always modifies a noun or pronoun.

372. An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective and hence always modifies a noun or pronoun.

An adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns, who, which or that. The use of this clause is a great help to us in the expression of our ideas, for it enables us to combine several sentences containing related thoughts into one sentence so we have it all presented to the mind at once.

Exercise 2

In the following sentences, note which are the noun clauses and which are the adjective clauses and which are the adverb clauses. The verb in the subordinate clause is in italics.

1. Life is what we make it.

2. We acquire the strength that we overcome.

3. While he slept the enemy came.

4. All that he does is to distribute what others produce.

5. When faith is lost, when honor dies, the man is dead.

6. Thrice is he armed who hath his quarrel just; he is naked though he be locked up in steel whose conscience with injustice is corrupted.

7. When strength and justice are true yoke fellows, where can we find a mightier pair than they?

8. You will gain a good reputation if you endeavor to be what you desire to appear.

9. Live as though life were earnest and life will be so.

10. He that loveth makes his own the grandeur that he loves.

11. Who does the best his circumstance allows does well; angels could do no more.

12. He is not worthy of the honeycomb that shuns the hive because the bees have stings.

13. We always may be what we might have been.

14. Rich gifts wax poor when givers prove unkind.

15. Let me make the songs of the people and I care not who makes the laws.

16. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of.

17. A great writer has said that grace is beauty in action; I say that justice is truth in action.

18. If we do not plant knowledge when young it will give us no shade when we are old.

19. You can no more exercise your reason if you live in constant dread of laughter than you can enjoy your life if you live in constant dread and terror of death.

WHICH RELATIVE PRONOUN TO USE

373. We are sometimes confused as to which relative pronoun to use in introducing an adjective clause. We hesitate as to whether we should use that or who or which. Remember that who always refers to persons, which refers to animals or things, and that may refer to either persons, animals or things.

So when referring to a person, we may use either who or that, and when referring to animals or things, we may use either which or that. As, for example, we may say, either, The man who was here yesterday came back today, or The man that was here yesterday came back today. Either is correct, for who and that both refer to persons.

374. We may make a little distinction in the use of who and that when referring to persons, however. A clause introduced by that is usually a restrictive clause. It limits or restricts the meaning of the noun which it modifies. When you say, The man that was here yesterday, you mean that man and no other, limiting your meaning to that particular man. On the other hand, when you say, The man who was here yesterday, there is no restriction or limitation expressed in the use of the clause, but it is merely a descriptive clause, adding a new fact to our knowledge concerning that particular man.

The same is true when we are speaking of things using either that or which. The clause introduced by which is presumably a descriptive clause. We do, however, often use who or which when the sense of the clause is restrictive, but we should never use that to introduce an adjective clause, unless the sense is restrictive. When in your sentences you can use, instead of the relative pronoun who or which, the conjunction and, you can know that the use of the pronoun who or which is correct. As, for example:

- I have read the book, which I found very interesting.

You could say instead:

- I have read the book and I found it very interesting.

This would express the same meaning. But if you say: I have read the book that I found very interesting, you mean that you limit your idea to this particular book.

375. We do not always observe these niceties in our spoken and written speech, but it is interesting to know the shades of thought and meaning which you can express by the proper use of the language. The man who runs an engine and learns to know and love his machine almost as though it were a human being, can easily recognize the slightest change in the action of his machine. His ear catches the least difference in the sound of the running of the machine, a difference which we, who do not know and love the machine, would never notice.

So it is in language. Once we have sensed its beauty and its wondrous power of expression, we notice all these slight differences and shades of meaning which may be expressed by the use of words. In just the same manner the musician catches the undertones and overtones of the music, which we, who possess an uneducated ear, cannot know; and the artist also has a wondrous range of color, while we, who are not sensitive to color, know only a few of the primal colors.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES WITH CONJUNCTIONS

376. The adjective clauses which we have been studying so far have been introduced by relative pronouns. Adjective clauses may also be introduced by conjunctions, such as, where, when, whence, or why. As, for example:

- Antwerp is the place where a terrible battle was fought.

- No man knows the hour when opportunity will be his.

- Each group has a different reason why this world-war was precipitated.

Note in these sentences the clauses, where a terrible battle was fought, when opportunity will be his, why this world-war was precipitated, are all adjective clauses modifying the nouns place, hour and reason, and are introduced by the conjunctions where, when, and why. These are adjective clauses because they modify, by either limiting or describing, the nouns with which they are used. You will note that we could omit the nouns in the first two of these sentences and these clauses would become noun clauses, for they would be used in the place of a noun. As, for example:

- Antwerp is where a terrible battle was fought.

- No man knows when opportunity will be his.

377. We determine whether a clause is an adjective or an adverb or a noun clause just as we determine whether a word is an adjective, adverb or noun, by the work which it does in a sentence. Noun clauses are used in the place of a noun; adverb clauses modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs; adjective clauses modify nouns and pronouns.

THE LITTLE WORD "AS"

378. Adjective clauses may also be introduced by as. As is a very convenient word and may be used in several different ways; sometimes as an adverb, sometimes as a conjunction; and it may also be used as a relative pronoun after such, same and many. For example:

- Such books as you should read are listed here.

- No such person as he ever came here.

- We are facing the same crisis as our comrades faced.

- This is the same as you gave before.

- He has made as many mistakes as you have.

In these sentences as is really used as a relative pronoun, connecting these adjective clauses to the words which they modify. As may also be used as an adverb. I am as tall as you are.

Here the first as modifies tall and is used as an adverb; the second as is a conjunction connecting the subordinate clause you are, with the principal clause. Note that in making comparisons, as is always used when the comparison is equal, so when it is unequal, thus:

- I am as tall as you are.

- She is not so tall as you are.

We have found that as is also used as a conjunction to introduce an adverb clause. For example:

- She is as beautiful as she is good.

The clause, as she is good, is an adverb clause, modifying the adjective beautiful. In the sentence, Do as I say, as I say is an adverb clause of manner, modifying the verb do.

CONNECTIVE WORDS

379. Let us not be confused in this matter of connectives. There are just four classes of connective words:

1. Copulative verbs.

2. Relative pronouns.

3. Prepositions.

4. Conjunctions.

380. The copulative verb is not a pure connective, for it serves another purpose in the sentence. For example, in the sentence, The book is interesting, the copulative verb is connects the adjective interesting with the noun book, which it modifies; but it also is the asserting word in the sentence. So it fulfils a double function. It is an asserting word and also a connective word.

381. The relative pronoun also is not a pure connective, for it serves two purposes in the sentence. It not only connects the clause which it introduces, with the word which it modifies, but it also serves as either the subject or object in the clause. For example: The man who was here has gone. The clause, who was here, is introduced by the relative pronoun who, which connects that clause with the noun man, which the clause modifies. Who also serves as the subject of the verb was.

In the sentence, The men whom we seek have gone, the clause, whom we seek, is introduced by the relative pronoun whom, which connects the clause with the word men, which it modifies. Whom also serves as the object of the verb in the clause, the verb seek.

382. A preposition is not a pure connective, since it serves a double function. It shows the relation of its object to the rest of the sentence and also governs the form of its object. As, for example, in the sentence: The man before me is not the culprit, the preposition before connects its object me with the noun man, which the prepositional phrase modifies, showing the relation between them; and it governs the form of its object, for the pronoun following a preposition must be used in the object form.

383. Even co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered pure connectives unless it be the co-ordinate conjunction and. Co-ordinate conjunctions such as but, yet, still, however, etc., not only connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, but in addition to connecting the words and expressions they also indicate that they are opposite in thought.

384. Co-ordinate conjunctions like therefore, hence, then, etc., connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, and also introduce a reason or cause. Co-ordinate conjunctions like or, either, nor, neither, whether, etc., connect words, phrases and clauses of equal rank, and also express the choice of an alternative. Thus these co-ordinate conjunctions can scarcely be considered as pure connectives.

385. Subordinate conjunctions are most frequently used to introduce adverb clauses and have an adverbial meaning. They express, as do adverbs, place, time, manner, cause, reason, purpose, condition or result. Some authorities indicate this double function by calling such words as these conjunctive adverbs, because, even when they are used as conjunctions, they retain some of their adverbial force.

But according to our rule that every word in the sentence is classified according to the function which it performs in that sentence, all words that perform the function of a conjunction are called conjunctions, although we understand that these conjunctions which introduce dependent clauses do still retain some of their adverbial meaning.

Exercise 3

In the following sentences the connectives are in italics. Determine whether they are copulative verbs, relative pronouns, prepositions, co-ordinate conjunctions or subordinate conjunctions.

1. They are slaves who dare not be in the right with two or three.

2. In the twentieth century war will be dead, dogmas will be dead, but man will live.

3. The abuse of free speech dies in a day, but its denial slays the life of the people and entombs the race.

4. Liberty for the few is not liberty.

5. Liberty for me and slavery for you means slavery for both.

6. The greatest thing in the world is for a man to know that he is his own.

7. Nothing can work me damage except myself.

8. He that loveth maketh his own the grandeur which he loves.

9. My life is not an apology, but a life.

10. I cannot consent to pay for a privilege where I have intrinsic right.

11. It is difficult to free fools from the chains which they revere.

12. Desire nothing for yourself which you do not desire for others.

13. All our liberties are due to men who, when their conscience compelled them, have broken the laws of the land.

14. "It takes great strength to live where you belong,

When other people think that you are wrong."

15. If the truth shall make you free, ye shall be free indeed.

16. He is true to God who is true to man.

Exercise 4

In the following sentences underscore all the connectives—copulative verbs, prepositions, relative pronouns, co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions.

"There was a bird's egg once, picked up by chance upon the ground, and those who found it bore it home and placed it under a barn-yard fowl. And in time the chick bred out, and those who had found it chained it by the leg to a log lest it should stray and be lost. And by and by they gathered round it, and speculated as to what the bird might be.

One said, "It is surely a waterfowl, a duck, or it may be a goose; if we took it to the water it would swim and gabble." But another said, "It has no webs to its feet; it is a barn-yard fowl; if you should let it loose it will scratch and cackle with the others on the dungheap." But a third speculated, "Look now at its curved beak; no doubt it is a parrot, and can crack nuts."

But a fourth said, "No, but look at its wings; perhaps it is a bird of great flight." But several cried, "Nonsense! No one has ever seen it fly! Why should it fly? Can you suppose that a thing can do a thing which no one has ever seen it do?" And the bird, with its leg chained close to the log, preened its wings.

So they say about it, speculating and discussing it: and one said this, and another that.

And all the while, as they talked, the bird sat motionless, "Suppose we let the creature loose to see what it will do?"—and the bird shivered. But the others cried, "It is too valuable; it might get lost. If it were to try to fly it might fall down and break its neck." And the bird, with its foot chained to the log, sat looking upward into the clear sky; the sky, in which it had never been—for the bird—the bird, knew what it would do—because it was an eaglet!"

—Olive Schreiner.

Exercise 5

These stirring lines are taken from Arturo Giovannitti's "Arrows in the Gale" and are a part of the poem "The Sermon on the Common." Note the use of the conjunctions. Mark all of the clauses.

Ye are the power of the earth, the foundations of society, the thinkers and the doers of all things good and all things fair and useful, the makers and dispensers of all the bounties and the joys and the happiness of the world, and if ye fold your mighty arms, all the life of the world stands still and death hovers on the darkened abodes of man.

Ye are the light of the world. There was darkness in all the ages when the torch of your will did not blaze forth, and the past and the future are full of the radiance that cometh from your eyes.

Ye are eternal, even as your father, labor, is eternal, and no power of time and dissolution can prevail against you.

Ages have come and gone, kingdoms and powers and dynasties have risen and fallen, old glories and ancient wisdoms have been turned into dust, heroes and sages have been forgotten and many a mighty and fearsome god has been hurled into the lightless chasms of oblivion.

But ye, Plebs, Populace, People, Rabble, Mob, Proletariat, live and abide forever.

Therefore I say unto you, banish fear from your hearts, dispel the mists of ignorance from your minds, arm your yearning with your strength, your vision with your will, and open your eyes and behold.

Do not moan, do not submit, do not kneel, do not pray, do not wait.

Think, dare, do, rebel, fight—ARISE!

It is not true that ye are condemned to serve and to suffer in shame forever.

It is not true that injustice, iniquity, hunger, misery, abjection, depravity, hatred, theft, murder and fratricide are eternal.

There is no destiny that the will of man cannot break.

There are no chains of iron that other iron cannot destroy.

There is nothing that the power of your arms, lighted by the power of your mind, cannot transform and reconstruct and remake.

Arise, then, ye men of the plow and the hammer, the helm and the lever, and send forth to the four winds of the earth your new proclamation of freedom which shall be the last and shall abide forevermore.

Through you, through your united, almighty strength, order shall become equity, law shall become liberty, duty shall become love and religion shall become truth.

Through you, the man-beast shall die and the man be born.

Through you, the dark and bloody chronicles of the brute shall cease and the story of man shall begin.

Through you, by the power of your brain and hand,

All the predictions of the prophets,

All the wisdom of the sages,

All the dreams of the poets,

All the hopes of the heroes,

All the visions of the martyrs,

All the prayers of the saints,

All the crushed, tortured, strangled, maimed and murdered ideals of the ages, and all the glorious destinies of mankind shall become a triumphant and everlasting reality in the name of labor and bread and love, the great threefold truth forever.

And lo and behold, my brothers, this shall be called the revolution.

SPELLING

LESSON 22

In our study of the spelling of English words we have found that there are not many rules that apply. In fact, the only way to learn to spell correctly is by sheer dint of memory.

In last week's lesson we found that a number of adjectives can be formed from nouns or verbs by the addition of able or ible, but we find it difficult to determine whether to add able or ible. The sound is practically the same and we are confused as to whether we should use a or i. There is no rule which applies in this case and there is nothing to do but to master the spelling of these words by memory. These are words which we use a great deal and which are very helpful members of our working vocabulary.

Our list of words in this week's lesson contain some of the most common words which we use ending in ible or able. The words for Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday all end in able; the words for Thursday, Friday, and Saturday will end in ible. Notice them carefully and get fixed firmly in mind the correct spelling. Notice also that most of these adjectives can be changed into adverbs by changing ble to bly. So when you have added these adjectives to your vocabulary, you have also added the adverbs as well.

Monday

- Probable

- Capable

- Usable

- Considerable

- Respectable

Tuesday

- Durable

- Salable

- Advisable

- Available

- Equitable

Wednesday

- Tolerable

- Profitable

- Remarkable

- Valuable

- Comfortable

Thursday

- Possible

- Horrible

- Plausible

- Intelligible

- Terrible

Friday

- Credible

- Visible

- Infallible

- Responsible

- Sensible

Saturday

- Forcible

- Permissible

- Feasible

- Corruptible

- Eligible

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 23

Dear Comrade:

In this lesson we are taking up the study of interjections. Interjections are the language of emotion. This was probably the earliest form of speech. You notice that children use these exclamations often, and the sounds which are imitations of the noises about them. This language belongs also to the savage, whose peculiar and expressive grunts contain whole areas of condensed thought. As we progress from feeling to thinking, the use of the interjection diminishes.

You will not find interjections used in a book on mathematics or physical science or history. To attempt to read one of these books may make you use interjections and express your emotion in violent language, but you will not find interjections in these books. These books of science are books that express thought and not feeling. But if you turn to fiction and to oratory you will find the interjection used freely, for these are the books which treat of the human emotions and feelings. Especially in poetry will you find the interjection used, for poetry is the language of feeling and the interjection is an important part of the poet's stock in trade.

In conversation, these exclamatory words are very useful. They fill the gaps in our conversation and they help to put the listener and the speaker in touch with one another. They are usually accompanied by a gesture, which adds force to the word. The tone of the voice in which they are expressed also means a great deal. You can say, Oh! in half a dozen different ways; you may express surprise, wonder, joy, sorrow, pain, or disgust. A great many different and widely separated feelings can be expressed simply by the tone in which you use the exclamatory words. Some one has said that these words grease the wheels of talk. They serve to help the timid, to give time to the unready and to keep up a pleasant semblance of familiarity.

When we use them in the stress of emotion to express deep feeling, their use is perfectly justified. But one author has called these words "the miserable refuge of the speechless." We use them many times because we have no words with which to express ourselves. This use is unjustified. Be careful that you do not use them in this way. It has been said that the degree of a man's civilization can be pretty fairly judged by the expletives which he uses. Do not sprinkle your conversation with interjections and even stronger words because you are at a loss for other words.

There is a rich mine of words at your disposal. Do not be satisfied with bits of glass that have no value, when the rich diamonds of real expression can be yours for just a little digging. Save your emotional language for the time when you really need it to express deep emotion.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

INTERJECTIONS

386. We have been studying the parts of speech,—the elements of which sentences are composed. But we have another class of words which we call parts of speech because they are spoken and written as words, but which are really not parts of speech in the same sense as the words which we have been discussing. These are words which we call interjections.

Interjection means, literally, thrown between, from jecto, to throw,and inter, between. So interjections do not enter into the constructionof sentences but are only thrown in between. Every word that is really a part of the sentence is either a noun, a pronoun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb, a preposition or a conjunction.

There are words, however, that we use with sentences which do not enter into the construction. For example, you say:

- Oh! I am wounded.

- Aha! I have conquered.

- Alas! He came too late.

387. Words which we use in these sentences, like, oh, aha, alas, are used to express the emotion which you feel in making the statement. Your Oh! in a sentence like: Oh! I am wounded, would probably sound very much like a groan. But your Aha! in the, Aha! I have conquered, will sound like a shout of victory, and your Alas! in the sentence, Alas! He came too late, will express grief or regret over the fact that he came too late.

These words do not assert anything and very much of the meaning which we give them must come from the tone in which they are uttered. Every one, upon hearing them, knows at once whether they express grief or delight.

388. An interjection is an exclamatory word or phrase used to express feeling or to imitate some sound.

389. Interjections may be divided into four classes:

1. Words which we use instead of an assertion to express feeling of various kinds, as:

- (a) Surprise or wonder; as, Oh, Aha, What.

- (b) Pleasure, joy, or exaltation; as, Hurrah, Ha, Ha.

- (c) Pain, sadness or sorrow; as, Alas, Alack.

- (d) Contempt or disgust; as Fie, Fudge, Ugh, Pshaw.

2. Words used instead of a question; as, Eh? Hey?

3. Words used instead of a command; as:

- (a) To call attention; as, Hello, Ahoy, Whoa.

- (b) To express silence; as, Shh, Hush, Hist.

- (c) To direct or drive out, etc., as, Whoa, Gee, Haw, Scat.

4. Words used to imitate sounds made by animals, machines, etc., as, Bow-wow, Ding-dong, Bang, Rub-a-dub.

When we wish to imitate noises or sounds made by animals, machines, etc., in writing, we spell out the words as nearly as we can, just as we write ding-dong to represent the sound of the bell or tick-tock to indicate the ticking of a clock.

Note that a number of our verbs and nouns have been formed from imitating the sound which these nouns or verbs describe or express, as for instance, crash, roar, buzz, hush, groan, bang, puff, etc.

Exercise 1

Mark the interjections in the following sentences. Which express surprise? Which joy? Which sorrow? Which disgust?

1. Alas! We shall never meet again.

2. Bravo! You have done well.

3. Pshaw! Is that the best you can do?

4. Ship ahoy! All hands on deck.

5. Hello! When did you come?

6. Hurrah! We have won the victory.

7. Alas, alack! Those days will never come again.

8. Hist! You must be as still as mice.

Exercise 2

Write sentences using an interjection to express: 1. Joy. 2. Surprise. 3. Pain. 4. Sorrow. 5. Disgust. 6. To ask a question. 7. To call attention. 8. To silence. 9. To direct. 10. To imitate the sound made by an animal. 11. By a machine.

EXCLAMATORY WORDS

390. Interjections express only emotion or feeling. They do not express ideas. However, we have a number of words which are used somewhat as interjections are used, which we may class as exclamatory words, but they express more than interjections, for they express ideas as well as emotions; but, like interjections, they are used independently and have no part in the construction of the sentence.

391. Many ordinary words and phrases are used in this way as exclamations. When they are so used they have no place in the construction of the sentence; that is, they do not depend upon the sentence in which they are used, in any way. A noun used in this way is not used as the subject or the object, but simply as an exclamation.

For example; the noun nonsense may be used as an interjection, as in the sentence; Nonsense! I do not believe a word of it. In this sentence, nonsense is a noun used as an interjection and plays no part in the sentence, either as subject or object, but is an independent construction. There are a number of words used in this way:

1. Nouns and pronouns, as fire, mercy, shame, nonsense, the idea, what.

2. Verbs like, help, look, see, listen, hark, behold, begone.

3. Adjectives like, good, well, brave, welcome, strange.

4. Adverbs like, out, indeed, how, why, back, forward.

5. Prepositions like, on, up, down.

6. Phrases like, Oh dear, dear me, good bye.

Words and phrases such as these, used as exclamations, are not true interjections, for they express a little more than feeling. They express an idea which, in our haste, we do not completely express. The other words necessary to the expression of the idea are omitted because of the stress of emotion. For example:

- Silence! I will hear no more.

In this sentence it is understood that we mean, Let us have silence, I will hear no more. But in the stress of our emotion, we have omitted the words, Let us have.

If we say, Good! that will do splendidly, you know that we mean, That is good, we have simply omitted That is, which is necessary to complete the sentence. Sometimes when we are greatly excited we abandon our sentence construction altogether and use only the most important words. For example:

- A sail! a sail!

This is not a sentence, for it does not contain a verb, yet we know that what was meant was, I see a sail, I see a sail.

Exercise 3

Write sentences using the words given in the foregoing list as exclamatory words, and add as many more to the list as you can think of.

YES AND NO

392. The words yes and no, which we use in reply to questions were originally adverbs, but we no longer use them as adverbs. We no longer combine them with other words as modifying or limiting words, but use them independently. They are in themselves complete answers. Thus, if you ask me the question, Will you come? I may say Yes, meaning, I will come; or, No, meaning, I will not come.

The responsives yes and no thus stand for whole sentences, so they are really independent words. We may use them in connection with other sentences. For example; I may say, Yes, I will come, or No, I will not come. Used in this way, they still retain an independent construction in the sentence. We call them responsives because they are used in response to questions.

OTHER INDEPENDENT EXPRESSIONS

393. Other words may be used in an independent construction in sentences, without depending upon the sentence in which they are used or without having the sentences depend upon them, such as:

1. A word used in address. For example:

- Mr. President, I move that a committee be now appointed.

- Fellow Workers, I rise to address you.

In these sentences, Mr. President and Fellow Workers are nouns used independently; that is, they are neither the subject of the sentence nor used as object or predicate complement. They are independent of all other words in the sentence.

The most common use of words used independently in direct address occurs with imperative sentences. For example:

- Comrades, rouse yourselves.

- Men, strike for freedom.

2. Exclamatory expressions. These are nouns used in the manner in which we have already discussed, as in the sentence:

- Nonsense! I do not believe a word of it.

- Alas! poor Yorick! I knew him well.

3. Words and phrases used parenthetically, as for example:

- By the way, I met a friend of yours today.

- We cannot, however, join you at once.

- He called, it seems, while we were gone.

In these sentences such words as, however, and such phrases as, by the way, and, it seems, are used independently,—in parenthesis, as it were; that is, they are just thrown into the sentences in such a way that they do not modify or depend upon any other word in the sentence. When we analyze our sentences, these independent words are not considered as elements of the sentences in which they are used. It is sufficient to say that they are independent words.

4. Conjunctions used as introductory words. We have noted the use of conjunctions like the co-ordinates and, but, etc., and the subordinates because, in order that, so, for, wherefore, how, whether, etc., which are used to introduce sentences and connect them in thought with sentences and paragraphs which have gone before.

INTRODUCTORY WORDS

394. We have a number of words which we use to introduce our sentences. They are such words as, so, well and why. These are ordinarily adverbs, but when they are used merely to introduce a sentence they retain little of their adverbial force. For example:

- So, that is your only excuse.

- Well, I cannot understand why you should accept it.

- Why, that is no reason at all.

In these sentences, so, well and why do not modify any of the words in the sentences, but are used merely to introduce the sentences. They serve in a measure to connect them with something which has gone before.

395. The adverb there is also used as an introductory word. When it is used in this manner, it loses its adverbial force. There, as ordinarily used, is an adverb of place, but it is often used to introduce a sentence. For example: There is some mistake about it. In this sentence there is not used as an adverb, but it is used simply as an introductory word. It is used to introduce a sentence in which the verb comes before the real subject. Mistake is the real subject of the verb is, and there is used simply as the introductory word.

396. The indefinite pronoun it is also used as an introductory word, to introduce a sentence in much the same manner as there. The real subject of the verb occurs later in the sentence. For example:

- It is best to know the truth.

This could be written, To know the truth is best, and the entire meaning of the sentence would be conveyed.

397. Adverbs of mode. You remember in our study of adverbs, we had certain adverbs which were called adverbs of mode. These are used to modify the entire sentence. They express the feeling in which the entire sentence is uttered. Adverbs of mode may be regarded also as independent words. They are such words as, indeed, surely, certainly, perhaps, etc. For example:

- Indeed, I cannot tell you now.

- Surely, I will comply with your request.

- Perhaps it may be true.

- I certainly hope to do so before long.

Exercise 4

Note in the following sentences the words which are pure interjections, and those which are other parts of speech used as exclamatory words. Mark those which are used in direct address, those which are used parenthetically, and those which are used as mere introductory words.

1. Oh, it seems impossible to believe it.

2. Surely, you will accept my word.

3. Nonsense, there is not the least truth in the story.

4. It will be impossible for us to join.

5. Therefore we urge you to join in this campaign.

6. There is only one solution to the problem.

7. It is difficult to discover the true facts.

8. Well, I have done my best to persuade you.

9. Mr. Chairman, I rise to a point of order.

10. Comrades, come and stand for your rights.

11. Yes, I have studied that philosophy.

12. Enough! we have been enslaved too long.

13. Hark! we hear the tramp of the army of labor.

14. Alas! that any should refuse to join in this battle.

15. You have not, it seems, understood the issue.

16. Indeed, solidarity is our only hope.

17. Br-r-r-r-r-r-r, thus whirl the machines that grind our children's lives.

18. Hush! Over the crash of the cannon sounds the wail of Europe's women and children.

EXPLANATORY WORDS

398. We sometimes use words which do not belong in the construction of a sentence to explain other words in the sentence. For example:

- We, the undersigned, subscribe as follows:

- Helen Keller, the most wonderful woman of this age, champions the cause of the working class.

In the first sentence, the words, the undersigned, are added to the pronoun we to explain who we means. In the second sentence, the words, the most wonderful woman of this age, are added to explain who Helen Keller is. Words added to other words in this way are called explanatory words. They are placed in apposition to the noun which they explain. Apposition means by the side of, or in position near. You remember that in clauses we found that a clause may be placed in apposition with a noun to explain the meaning of that noun. For example:

- There is an old saying, in union there is strength.

These words in apposition may themselves be modified or limited by other words or phrases or clauses. For example:

- Helen Keller, the most wonderful woman of this age, champions the cause of the working class.

In this sentence, woman is the noun placed in apposition to the particular name, Helen Keller, and the noun woman is modified by the adjectives the, and wonderful, and by the phrase of this age.

Sometimes a second explanatory word is placed in apposition to the first one. This is quite often the case in legal documents or resolutions, where the language is quite formal. For example:

- We, the undersigned, members of Local No. 38, do hereby move, etc.

- I, John Smith, Notary Public, in and for the county of Clay, etc.

These words, undersigned and members, are both placed in apposition to the pronoun We, explaining to whom that pronoun refers.

Exercise 5

In the following sentences note the explanatory words and their modifiers:

1. Wendell Phillips, the great abolitionist, was a man of genius.

2. Buckle, the historian, writes from the view point of the materialistic conception of history.

3. Giovannitti, the poet, wrote "Arrows in the Gale."

4. Helen Keller, champion of the working class, wrote the introduction to this book.

5. We, the workers of the world, will some day claim our own.

6. He was found guilty of treason, a crime punishable by death.

7. Ferrer, the martyr of the twentieth century, was put to death by the Spanish government.

8. Jaures, the great French socialist, was the first martyr to peace.

9. But ye, Plebs, Populace, People, Rabble, Mob, Proletariat, live and abide forever.

10. Ye are eternal, even as your father, labor, is eternal.

11. This document, the Constitution of the United States, hinders the progress of the people.

12. The memory of Guttenberg, the inventor of the printing press, should be reverenced by every class-conscious worker.

13. Wallace, the scientist and author, was co-discoverer with Darwin of the theory of evolution.

14. Karl Marx, the thinker, applied this theory to social forces.

15. Do you understand the three basic principles of Socialism—the class struggle, economic determinism and surplus value?

Exercise 6

Read the following list of words and note the ideas which they suggest to you, then make sentences containing these words, modified by a word or group of words in apposition, which explain more fully these words.

Law, martyr, society, education, inventor, commander, freedom, Eugene V. Debs, Karl Marx, Kaiser Wilhelm, The Balkan, Lawrence, Colorado, Calumet.

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION

399. We have found that every word in a sentence bears some relation to every other word, except these words which we have been studying, which we use independently. These explanatory words which we have just been studying are not used independently, but do in a sense modify the noun with which they are placed in apposition. Sometimes we place a noun or a pronoun and its modifiers alongside the whole sentence and it does not really modify any part of the sentence, but modifies the whole sentence in a way, for it expresses an attendant thought or an accompanying circumstance. For example:

- The workers being unorganized, the strike was easily defeated.

- The strikers having won, work was resumed on their terms.

The workers being unorganised and the strikers having won are not clauses for they do not contain a verb. Being unorganized and having won are participles. Neither do they modify any word in the sentence. They are not placed in apposition with any other word. While they do express a thought in connection with the sentence, in construction they seem to be cut loose from the rest of the sentence; that is, they are not closely connected with the sentence, hence they are called absolute constructions. Ab means from, and solute, loose; so this means, literally, loose from the rest of the sentence.

We speak of these as absolute constructions, instead of independent, because the thought expressed is connected with the main thought of the sentence and is really a part of it. Notice that the noun used in the absolute construction is not the subject of the sentence.

Take the sentence, The workers being unorganized, the strike was easily defeated, the noun strike is the subject of the sentence, and the noun workers is used in the absolute construction with the participle, being unorganized.

These absolute constructions can ordinarily be rewritten into adverb clauses. For example, this sentence might read: The strike was easily defeated because the workers were unorganized. Do not make the mistake of rewriting your sentences and using the noun in the absolute construction as the subject of the sentence. For example:

- The workers, being unorganized, were easily defeated.

This is not the meaning of this sentence. The meaning of the sentence is that the strike was easily defeated because the workers were unorganized. But the adverb clause, because the workers were unorganized, instead of being written as an adverb clause, has been written in the absolute construction, the workers being unorganized.

While it is nearly always possible to change these absolute constructions into adverb clauses the sentences are sometimes weakened by the change. These absolute constructions often enable us to make a statement in a stronger manner than we could make it with a clause or in any other way.

Exercise 7

In the following sentences, note the groups of words which are used in absolute construction. Rewrite these sentences and if possible change these words used in absolute construction into equivalent adverb phrases or clauses. Note how some of the sentences are weakened when you make this change.

1. Nationalism having been taught to generation after generation, the workers obeyed the call of the master class to slaughter their fellow workers.

2. The hour having arrived, Ferrer was blindfolded and led forth to die.

3. The mass being without education, capitalism gains an easy victory.

4. The class struggle being a fact, why should we hesitate to join our class?

5. These facts being true, such a conclusion is inevitable.

6. Darwin having stated the theory of evolution, Marx applied its principles to social science.

7. Chattel slavery having been destroyed, wage-slavery became the corner stone of capitalism.

8. The price having been paid, we claim our own.

9. The battle ended, the army left the trenches.

Exercise 8

Mark the interjections in the following quotations. Note the independent constructions. Mark the words used as explanatory words in apposition.

In the mind's eye, I see a wonderful building, something like the Coliseum of ancient Rome. The galleries are black with people; tier upon tier rise like waves the multitude of spectators who have come to see a great contest. A great contest, indeed! A contest in which all the world and all the centuries are interested. It is the contest—the fight to death—between Truth and Error.

The door opens, and a slight, small, shy and insignificant looking thing steps into the arena. It is Truth. The vast audience bursts into hilarious and derisive laughter. What! Is this Truth? This shuddering thing in tattered clothes, and almost naked? And the house shakes again with mocking and hisses.

The door opens again, and Error enters—clad in cloth of gold, imposing in appearance, tall of stature, glittering with gems, sleek and huge and ponderous, causing the building to tremble with the thud of its steps. The audience is for a moment dazzled into silence, then it breaks into applause, long and deafening. "Welcome!" "Welcome!" is the greeting from the multitude. "Welcome!" shout ten thousand throats.

The two contestants face each other. Error, in full armor—backed by the sympathies of the audience, greeted by the clamorous cheering of the spectators; and Truth, scorned, scoffed at, and hated. "The issue is a foregone conclusion," murmurs the vast audience. "Error will trample Truth under its feet."

The battle begins. The two clinch, separate, and clinch again. Truth holds its own. The spectators are alarmed. Anxiety appears in their faces. Their voices grow faint. Is it possible? Look! See! There! Error recedes! It fears the gaze of Truth! It shuns its beauteous eyes! Hear it shriek and scream as it feels Truth's squeeze upon its wrists. Error is trying to break away from Truth's grip. It is making for the door. It is gone!

The spectators are mute. Every tongue is smitten with the palsy. The people bite their lips until they bleed. They cannot explain what they have seen. "Oh! who would have believed it?" "Is it possible?"—they exclaim. But they cannot doubt what their eyes have seen—that puny and insignificant looking thing called Truth has put ancient and entrenched Error, backed by the throne, the altar, the army, the press, the people and the gods—to rout.

The pursuit of truth! Is it not worth living for? To seek the truth, to love the truth, to live the truth? Can any religion offer more?—Mangasarian.

SPELLING

LESSON 23

Many words contain letters for which there are no corresponding sounds in the spoken words. Thus, in the spoken word though there are only two sounds, the th and the o; u and g and h are silent. There are a great many words in the English language which contain these silent letters. There has been a movement inaugurated for the purpose of simplifying the spelling of these words, omitting these silent letters. Some writers have adopted this method of simplified spelling, and so in some magazines and books which you read you will find these silent letters dropped; for example, you will find though spelled tho, through spelled thru.

This method of simplified spelling has not been universally adopted and we have not followed it in these lessons because we feared that it would be confusing. Probably in most of your reading you will find the old method of spelling followed and all of these silent letters included. No doubt, as time goes on, we shall adopt this simplified method of spelling and drop all of these silent and useless letters.

In our spelling lesson for this week we have a number of words containing silent letters.

MONDAY

In a number of words you will find ea pronounced as short e. The board of simplified spelling has suggested that we drop the a, which is a silent letter, from these words. If we adopted their suggestion, words like head would be spelled hed. Note the spelling of the following words in which ea is pronounced as short e and the a is silent.

Spread, stead, threat, meant, pleasant, stealth.

TUESDAY

We have a number of words ending in ough in which the gh is silent.

1. In some of these words the ou is pronounced like ow. We have already changed the spelling of a few of these words, for example, we no longer use plough, but write it plow.

2. In other words ending with ough the ugh is silent and the words end with a long o sound, as in though. Many writers have dropped the silent letters ugh and spell this simply tho.

3. A few other words ending with ough end with a u sound and those who adopt the simplified spelling have dropped the ough and used simply u, as in through; many writers spell it simply thru. Observe the spelling of the following words and mark the silent letters:

Bough, through, thorough, furlough, borough, though.

WEDNESDAY

We have a number of words ending in mn in which the n is silent. Note the spelling of the following words:

Autumn, solemn, column, kiln, hymn, condemn.

THURSDAY

We have a number of words containing a silent b. Notice the spelling of the following words:

Doubt, debt, dumb, limb, thumb, lamb.

FRIDAY

A number of words end with silent ue after g. Some writers omit the ue and probably after a while we will drop this silent ue, but you will find it used now in most of your reading. These are such words as:

Catalogue, demagogue, decalogue, tongue, league, harangue.

SATURDAY

We have a number of words ending with gh in which the gh has the sound of f, as in the following words:

Trough, rough, enough, laugh, tough, cough.

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 24

Dear Comrade:

We have finished our study of the different parts of speech and are going to enter upon the work of sentence building. In the next few lessons we will gather up all that we have been studying in these lessons so far. This is a good time to give this work a thorough review. Perhaps there have been a number of things in the lessons which you have not thoroughly understood, or perhaps there have been some rules for which you have not seen the reason. Now as we begin to construct our sentences, all of this will fit into its place. We shall find the reason for many of the things which may not have seemed thoroughly clear to us.

There is a science in language as in everything else, and language, after all, is governed by the will of the people. This has seemed so self-evident to those who make a special study of the language and its development that they have given this power a special name. They speak of the "Genius of the Language" as though there was some spirit guiding and directing the developing power of language.

There is a spirit guiding and directing the developing power of language. That spirit is the creative genius of the people. It is the same spirit that would guide and direct all phases of life into full and free expression, if it were permitted to act. There being no private profit connected with the control of the language, the creative genius of the people has had fuller sway.

The educator sitting in his study cannot make arbitrary rules to change or conserve the use of words. The people themselves are the final arbiter in language. It is the current usage among the masses which puts the final stamp upon any word. Think what this same creative genius might do if it were set free in social life, in industrial life. It would work out those principles which were best fitted to the advance of the people themselves. But those who would profit by the enslavement of the people have put stumbling blocks,—laws, conventions, morals, customs,—in the way of the people.

Their creative genius does not have full sway or free sweep, but let us rejoice that in language, at least, we are free. And let us, as we realize the power of the people manifest in this phase of life, determine that the same power shall be set free to work out its will in all life. Some day the revolution will come. The people will be free to rule themselves, to express their will, not in the realms of words alone, but in their social and economic life; and as we become free within, dare to think for ourselves and to demand our own, we each become a torch of the revolution, a center of rebellion—one of those who make straight the path for the future.

Yours for the Revolution,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

SENTENCE BUILDING

400. Every expression of a complete thought is a sentence. A sentence is the unit in language. Words are the material out of which we build our sentences, so we have been studying the various parts of speech that are used in sentence building. Now we are ready to use these parts of speech in the building of sentences. We have found that there are eight parts of speech, though the interjection, which is termed the eighth part of speech, is not in reality a part of the sentence; but is a complete, independent construction. So in your sentences all of the many hundreds of words which we use can be grouped into seven divisions; nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions.

401. You remember in our first lesson we found that there were just three kinds of sentences. The assertive, the interrogative and the imperative; or in other words, sentences which state a fact, ask a question or give a command. We also found that these three kinds of sentences could all be expressed in exclamatory form.

THREE KINDS OF SENTENCES

- Assertive. Makes a statement.

- Interrogative. Asks a question.

- Imperative. Gives a command.

- Assertive sentence; I remember the day.

- Interrogative sentence; Do you not remember the day?

- Imperative sentence; Remember the day.

In Exclamatory Form

- Assertive; Nonsense! I remember the day.

- Interrogative; What! Do you not remember the day?

- Imperative; Oh come! Remember the day.

ANALYSIS—SIMPLE SENTENCES

402. Now that we have finished the study of the various parts of speech, we are ready for sentence building and for sentence analysis. Sentence analysis is the breaking up of the sentence into its different parts in order to find out how and why it is thus put together. To analyze anything is to break it up or separate it into its different parts. We speak of analyzing a sentence when we pick out the subject and the predicate and their modifiers, because we thus unloosen them or separate them from one another.

These parts of the sentence are called the elements of the sentence. The elements of a sentence consist of the words, phrases and clauses used in forming the sentence.

403. Let us begin from the simplest beginning and build up our sentences, using the various parts of speech as we have studied them. Let us take the simplest form of sentence which we can consider. For example:

- Men work.

There are only three parts of speech which can be used to make a simple sentence in this manner, and these are, either the noun and the verb, or the pronoun and the verb. We might say instead of Men work, They work, and have a complete sentence.

In the sentence Men work, men is the subject and work is the predicate. The subject and the predicate are the two principal elements in a sentence. No sentence can be formed without these two parts and these two parts can express a thought without the help of other elements. Now we may begin to enlarge the subject by adding modifiers.

You remember we have found that a noun may be modified by an adjective. So we add the adjective busy, and we have:

- Busy men work.

Our simple subject is still the noun men, but the complete subject is the noun with its modifier, busy men. We may add other adjectives and say:

- The busy, industrious men with families work.

Here we have our simple subject men modified by the adjectives, the, busy and industrious, and also by the adjective phrase, with families. So the complete subject of the sentence now is, the busy, industrious men with families.

Our predicate is still the single verb work. Let us now enlarge the predicate. We have found that adverbs are used to modify verbs, and so we may say:

- The busy, industrious men with families work hard.

- The busy, industrious men with families work hard in the factory.

Our simple predicate, work is now enlarged. It is modified by the adverb, hard and the adverb phrase, in the factory. So our complete predicate is now, work hard in the factory.

404. These sentences with the simple subject and the simple predicate and their modifying words and phrases form simple sentences.

A simple sentence is one which expresses a single statement, question or command.

405. A simple sentence, therefore, will contain but one subject and one predicate. The subject may be a compound subject and the predicate may be a compound predicate, but still the sentence expresses a single thought. For example: The boys sing. This is a simple statement with a simple subject and a simple predicate. Then we may say: The boys sing and play. We still have a single statement, but a compound predicate, sing and play.

Now we may make a compound subject, and say, The boys and girls sing and play, but we have still a single statement, for both predicates are asserted of both subjects. So, The boys and girls sing and play, is a simple sentence.

If we say, The boys sing and the girls play, we have a compound sentence, composed of two simple sentences, The boys sing, The girls play.

If we say, The boys sing while the girls play, we have a complex sentence formed of the simple sentence, The boys sing, and the dependent clause, while the girls play.

406. Now let us sum up our definitions:

Every sentence must contain two parts, a subject and a predicate.

The subject of a sentence is that part about which something is said.

The predicate is that part which asserts something of the subject.

The simple subject of a sentence is a noun, or the word used in place of a noun, without modifiers.

The simple predicate is the verb or verb phrase without its modifiers.

The complete subject of a sentence is the simple subject with all of its modifiers.

The complete predicate of a sentence is the simple predicate with all of its modifiers.

A simple sentence is one which expresses a single statement, question or command.

A complex sentence is one containing an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.

A compound sentence is one containing two or more independent clauses.

A clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences the simple subject and the simple predicate are printed in italics. Find all of the modifiers of the subject and all of the modifiers of the predicate, and draw a single line under the complete subject and two lines under the complete predicate.

1. Beautiful pictures hang on the wall.

2. Those elm trees grow rapidly every year.

3. A terrible storm broke unexpectedly at sea.

4. The clear, crystal water runs swiftly to the sea.

5. The beautiful flowers fade quickly in the heat.

6. The happy, boisterous children play at school every day.

7. The sturdy oak in the forest stands bravely through every storm.

8. Their arching tops almost speak to us.

9. A cry of joy rings through the land.

10. The leaves of the trees flutter in the wind.

11. Great clouds of smoke float in the air.

Exercise 2

Note carefully the following simple sentences. Each of these groups of two words will suggest ideas and pictures to you. Lengthen each sentence by adding modifiers to the simple subject and to the simple predicate so as to make a fuller and more definite statement. For example: Ships sail. This is a simple subject and simple predicate. We add adjectives and an adjective phrase and adverbs and an adverb phrase as modifiers and we have, as follows:

- The stately ships in the bay sail proudly away to foreign shores.

- Snow melts.

- Winds blow.

- House stands.

- Boys run.

- Soldiers fight.

- Tides flow.

- Children play.

- Ships sail.

- Guns boom.

- Women endure.

ANOTHER ELEMENT

407. You will note that all of these verbs which we have used in these sentences have been complete verbs as hang, grow, runs, fade, etc. A complete verb, you will remember, is a verb that does not need an object or a complement. It is complete within itself. It may be modified by an adverb or an adverb phrase, but when you leave off these modifiers you still have complete sense.

In any of the sentences above you may cross out the adverb or the adverb phrase which modifies the verb and you will still have complete sentences. For example:

- Great clouds of smoke float in the air.

Here, the adverb phrase, in the air, may be omitted and still we have complete sense, thus:

- Great clouds of smoke float.

408. The incomplete verbs, however, require either an object or complement to complete their meaning.

Incomplete verbs are of two kinds; those that express action and those that express state or condition.

An incomplete verb that expresses action requires an object which is the receiver of the action expressed in the verb, so we have another element which enters into the simple sentence, when we use an incomplete verb. For example:

- The busy man makes shoes.

In order to complete the sentence, we must use an object with the incomplete verb makes. To say, The busy man makes, is not enough. We must have an object which is the receiver of the action expressed in the verb, makes. Verbs of action often have two objects. One object names the thing that receives the action and the other names the thing indirectly affected by the action. For example:

- The tailor made him a coat.

409. Coat is the direct object of the verb made. But we have another object in the pronoun him. We do not mean that the tailor made him, but that the tailor made him a coat. Coat is the direct object and him is the indirect object. The indirect object is always placed before the direct object. The indirect object may be used as the object of the preposition to or for. As for example, this sentence might be rewritten to read, The tailor made a coat for him. In this sentence, him is not the indirect object of the verb, but is the object of the preposition for.

410. The direct object of the verb always answers the question what? As for example, the tailor made what?—a coat. The indirect object of the verb names the person or thing to or for which the act is done,—the tailor made a coat for whom?—for him.

The direct and indirect object become a part of the complete predicate of the sentence. There may be other modifiers also, as adverbs or adverb phrases, and all of these taken together form the complete predicate in the sentences where you have used an incomplete verb. As for example:

- The tailor gladly made him a coat for the occasion.

The complete predicate is, gladly made him a coat for the occasion, formed of the verb made, the direct object, coat, the indirect object him, the adverb modifier, gladly, and the phrase modifier, for the occasion.

Exercise 3

In the following sentences, underscore the direct object with one line and the indirect object with two lines. The verb is in italics.

1. He gave her a book.

2. He wrote me a long letter.

3. Her father bought her a watch.

4. The nurse gave the patient his medicine.

5. The mother gave her daughter a present.

6. Give me time to think.

7. The clerk sold her a dress.

8. The teacher read the children a story.

9. The company furnishes the men food and shelter.

10. The man showed us his wounds.

Exercise 4

In the following sentences underscore the complete subject and the complete predicate. Notice especially the direct and the indirect objects of the incomplete verbs. The simple subjects and the direct objects are in italics.

1. A great many miles separate us from our friends.

2. The merry shouts of the children fill the air with music.

3. A gentle breeze brings us the perfume of the flowers.

4. A careless druggist gave the unfortunate man the wrong medicine.

5. His admiring friends gave him a beautiful ring.

6. Soldiers obey orders from their superiors.

7. This terrible war claims thousands of victims.

8. The power of hunger drives the unemployed to rebellion.

9. The workers of the world produce enough for all.

10. The retiring secretary showed us a letter from the president.

11. The old sea captain told them an interesting story of life at sea.

12. Labor produces all wealth.

COPULATIVE VERBS

411. We have another class of incomplete verbs which require a complement to complete their meaning. These are the copulative verbs. The number of copulative verbs is small. They are: all forms of the verb be; also, like, appear, look, feel, sound, smell, become, seem, etc. These verbs require a noun or an adjective or a phrase as a complement, to complete their meaning. They are really connective words serving to connect the noun or adjective or phrase used in the predicate with the noun which they modify. The noun or adjective or phrase used to complete the meaning of the copulative verb is called a predicate complement. For example:

- The man is a hero.

Here we have a noun, hero, used as a predicate complement after the copulative verb, is, to describe the noun man.

- The man is class-conscious.

In this sentence, we have an adjective, class-conscious, in the predicate to modify the subject, man. It is connected with the subject by the copulative verb is.

- The man is in earnest.

Here we have a phrase, in earnest, used in the predicate to modify the noun man, and connected with the subject by the copulative verb is.

412. So in the predicate with the copulative verbs—incomplete verbs which express state or condition—we may use a noun or an adjective or a phrase. A noun used as the predicate complement may have modifiers. It may be modified by one or more adjectives or adjective phrases. These adjectives in turn may be modified by adverbs. The complete predicate, then, is the copulative verb with its predicate complement and all its modifiers. For example:

- Grant was the most famous general of the Civil war.

In this sentence, Grant is the complete subject, was the most famous general of the Civil war is the complete predicate. Was is the copulative verb; general is the noun used as the predicate complement; the and famous are adjectives modifying general; most is an adverb modifying the adjective famous, and, of the Civil war is an adjective phrase modifying general, so our complete predicate is, was the most famous general of the Civil war.

When an adjective is used in the predicate complement it, too, may have modifiers and more than one adjective may be used. For example:

- The man is very brave and loyal to his class.

Here we have two adjectives used in the predicate complement, brave and loyal. Brave is modified by the adverb very, and loyal is modified by the adverb phrase, to his class. The complete predicate is, is very brave and loyal to his class.

When we use a phrase as a predicate complement, it, too, may have modifiers and more than one phrase may be used. For example:

- The man is in the fight and deeply in earnest.

In this sentence, two phrases are used in the predicate complement, in the fight and in earnest. The second phrase, in earnest is modified by the adverb deeply. The complete predicate is, is in the fight and deeply in earnest.

Exercise 5

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with a noun and its modifiers used as predicate complement. Name all of the parts of speech which you have used in the predicate complement as we have done in the sentences analyzed above:

- The men are loyal members of the Union.

- Slavery is.......

- Liberty will be.......

- War is.......

- The machine is.......

- The children were.......

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with one or more adjectives and their modifiers used in the predicate complement.

- The work is hard and destructive to the children.

- The history will be.......

- Labor has been.......

- Peace will be.......

- Poverty is.......

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with a phrase used in the predicate complement.

- His service was for his class.

- Socialism is.......

- The workers are.......

- The message shall be.......

- The government is.......

- The opportunity is.......

VERB PHRASES

413. Note that in most of the sentences which we have used, we have used the simple form of the verb, the form that is used to express past and present time. In expressing other time forms we use verb phrases. Note the summary given in section 145, which gives the different time forms of the verb.

414. Sometimes in using the verb phrase you will find that other words may separate the words forming the phrase. When you analyze your sentence this will not confuse you. You will easily be able to pick out the verb phrase. For example:

- I shall very soon find out the trouble.

Here the adverbs, very and soon, separate find from its auxiliary shall. The verb phrase is, shall find. The negative not very often separates the words forming a verb phrase. For example:

- I will not go.

In this sentence, will go is the verb phrase.

When we use the auxiliary verb do to express emphasis, and also the negative not, not comes between the auxiliary verb do, and the principal verb. For example:

- I do not obey, I think.

In this sentence, do obey is the verb phrase.

In interrogative sentences, the verb phrase is inverted and a part of the verb phrase is placed first and the subject after. For example:

- Will you go with us?

You is the subject of this interrogative sentence and will go is the verb phrase; but in order to ask the question, the order is inverted and part of the verb phrase placed first. In using interrogative adverbs in asking a question, the same inverted order is used. For example:

- When will this work be commenced?

In this sentence, work is the subject of the sentence and will be commenced is the verb phrase. If you should write this in assertive form, it would be:

- This work will be commenced when?

By paying close attention we can easily distinguish the verb phrases even when they are used in the inverted form or when they are separated by other parts of speech.

LET US SUM UP

415. The elements of a sentence are the words, phrases or clauses of which it is composed.

A simple sentence is one which contains a single statement, question or command.

A simple sentence contains only words and phrases. It does not contain dependent clauses. The elements of a simple sentence are:

The complete subject

{

The simple subject—the noun, or the word used in place of the noun— and all its modifiers.

The complete predicate

{

The simple predicate—the verb, and all its modifiers.

Exercise 6

In the following sentences, the simple subjects and the simple predicates of the principal clauses are printed in italics. Locate all the modifiers of the subjects and predicates, and determine the part of speech of each word in the sentence.

Sentences Nos. 1, 5, 6, 14, 15, 16, 18, 30, 31, 32 and 37 are simple sentences.

Sentences Nos. 2, 4, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 22, 26, 28, 33, 34 and 36 are complex.

Sentences Nos. 3, 10, 12, 21, 23, 24, 25, 29 and 35 are compound.

No. 8 is incomplete, having neither subject nor predicate.

No. 9 is incomplete, there being no predicate in the principal clause.

No. 20 is a simple sentence, with a complex sentence in parenthesis.

No. 27 consists of two dependent clauses.

In the complex sentences, draw a line under the dependent clauses.

- "Br—r—r—r—r—r—r—r—r—."

1. What are the machines saying, a hundred of them in one long room?

2. They must be talking to themselves, for I see no one else for them to talk to.

3. But yes, there is a boy's red head bending over one of them, and beyond I see a pale face fringed with brown curly locks.

4. There are only five boys in all, on the floor, half-hidden by the clattering machines, for one bright lad can manage twenty-five of them.

5. Each machine makes one cheap, stout sock in five minutes, without seam, complete from toe to ankle, cutting the thread at the end and beginning another of its own accord.

6. The boys have nothing to do but to clean and burnish and oil the steel rods and replace the spools of yarn.

7. But how rapidly and nervously they do it—the slower hands straining to accomplish as much as the fastest!

8. Working at high tension for ten hours a day in the close, greasy air and endless whirr——

9. Boys who ought to be out playing ball in the fields or taking a swim in the river this fine summer afternoon.

10. And in these good times, the machines go all night, and other shifts of boys are kept from their beds to watch them.

11. The young girls in the mending and finishing rooms downstairs are not so strong as the boys.

12. They have an unaccountable way of fainting and collapsing in the noise and smell, and then they are of no use for the rest of the day.

13. The kind stockholders have had to provide a room for collapsed girls and to employ a doctor, who finds it expedient not to understand this strange new disease.

14. Perhaps their children will be more stalwart in the next generation.

15. Yet this factory is one of the triumphs of our civilization.

16. With only twenty boys at a time at the machines in all the rooms, it produces five thousand dozen pairs of socks in twenty-four hours for the toilers of the land.

17. It would take an army of fifty thousand hand-knitters to do what these small boys perform.

"Br—r—r—r—r—r—r—r—r—."

18. What are the machines saying?

19. They are saying, "We are hungry."

20. "We have eaten up the men and women. (There is no longer a market for men and women, they come too high)—

21. We have eaten up the men and women, and now we are devouring the boys and girls.

22. How good they taste as we suck the blood from their rounded cheeks and forms, and cast them aside sallow and thin and careworn, and then call for more.

23. Br—r—r—r—r—r—r—r! how good they taste; but they give us so few boys and girls to eat nowadays, although there are so many outside begging to come in—.

24. Only one boy to twenty of us, and we are nearly famished!

25. We eat those they give us and those outside will starve, and soon we shall be left almost alone in the world with the stockholders.

26. Br—r—r—r—r—r—r—r! What shall we do then for our food?" the machines chatter on.

27. "When we are piling up millions of socks a day for the toilers and then there are no toilers left to buy them and wear them.

28. Then perhaps we shall have to turn upon the kind stockholders and feast on them (how fat and tender and toothsome they will be!) until at last we alone remain, clattering and chattering in a desolate land," growled the machines.

29. While the boys went on anxiously, hurriedly rubbing and polishing, and the girls downstairs went on collapsing.

30. "Br—r—r—r—r—r—r—r!" growled the machines.

31. The devil has somehow got into the machines.

32. They came like the good gnomes and fairies of old, to be our willing slaves and make our lives easy.

33. Now that, by their help, one man can do the work of a score, why have we not plenty for all, with only enough work to keep us happy?

34. Who could have foreseen all the ills of our factory workers and of those who are displaced and cast aside by factory work?

35. The good wood and iron elves came to bless us all, but some of us have succeeded in bewitching them to our own ends and turning them against the rest of mankind.

36. We must break the sinister charm and win over the docile, tireless machines until they refuse to shut out a single human being from their benefits.

37. We must cast the devil out of the machines.—Ernest Crosby.

SPELLING

LESSON 24

Among the common suffixes in English are the suffixes or and er. These suffixes mean one who or that which. For example, builder, one who builds; actor, one who acts; heater, that which heats. But we are confused many times to know whether to add the suffix or or er to form these derivative words. There is no exact rule which can be given, but the following rule usually applies with but few exceptions:

To the shorter and commoner words in the language add the suffix er. For example, writer, boxer, singer, etc. To the longer and less common words, usually those derived from the Latin or the Greek, add the suffix or. For example, legislator, conqueror, etc.

There are a number of words in the English like honor, in which the last syllable used to be spelled our instead of or. You will probably run across such words as these in your reading. This mode of spelling these words, however, is being rapidly dropped and the ending or is being used instead of our. There are also a number of words in our language like center, which used to be spelled with re instead of er. The re ending is not used any more, although you may run across it occasionally in your reading. The proper ending for all such words as these is er. There are a few words, however, like timbre (a musical term) and acre, which are still properly spelled with the re ending.

The spelling lessons for Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday, contain words from which derivatives can be formed by adding er or or. Look these words up in the dictionary and be sure that you have added the proper suffix. The list for Friday consists of words which you may find in your reading spelled with the our ending. The list for Saturday contains words which you may find spelled with the re ending instead of the er.

Monday

- Create

- Produce

- Profess

- Debate

- Govern

Tuesday

- Edit

- Consume

- Consign

- Legislate

- Design

Wednesday

- Solicit

- Pay

- Success

- Observe

- Invent

Thursday

- Vote

- Debt

- Organize

- Sail

- Strike

Friday

- Labor

- Neighbor

- Rumor

- Valor

- Candor

Saturday

- Theater

- Scepter

- Fiber

- Somber

- Meager

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 25

Dear Comrade:

In logic, we have two ways of reasoning, from the general to the particular and from the particular to the general. In other words, we may take a certain number of facts and reason to a conclusion; or we may go the other way about and start with our conclusion and reason back to the facts which produce the conclusion. Scientists use the former method. They gather together all the facts which they possibly can and from these facts they reach their conclusions.

This was what Karl Marx did for the social problems of his day. He analyzed these problems. He gathered together all of the facts which he could obtain concerning conditions of his day and from these facts he reached certain conclusions. He foretold the rise of capitalism and outlined present day conditions so perfectly that had he lived long ago among superstitious people, they would probably have called him a prophet.

This mastery of analysis, of marshaling our facts and from them reaching conclusions, is a wonderful power to possess, and this is exactly what we are doing in our English work. We are analyzing our sentences, finding the elements of which they are composed, and then building the sentence; and since neither the thought nor the sentence can be really studied except in connection with each other, this analysis of sentences gives us an understanding of the thought. The effort to analyze a difficult sentence leads to a fuller appreciation of the meaning of the sentence. This, in turn, cultivates accuracy in our own thought and in its expression.

So do not slight the analysis of the sentence or this work in sentence building. You will find it will help you to a quicker understanding of that which you are reading and it will also give you a logical habit of mind. You will be able to think more accurately and express yourself more clearly. After a little practice in analysis you will find that in your reading you will be able to grasp the author's meaning quickly. You will see at a glance, without thinking about it consciously, the subject and the predicate and the modifiers in the sentence. Then you will not confuse the meaning. You will not have to go back and reread the passage to find out just what the author was talking about; and when you come to write and speak yourself, you will have formed the habit of logical expression. In this way you will be able to put your thought in such a manner that your listener can make no mistake as to just what you mean.

Now, no habit comes without practice. You cannot do a thing unconsciously until you have done it consciously a great many times. So practice this analysis of sentences over and over. It really is an interesting game in itself, and the results which it will bring to you are tremendously worth while.

Nothing is too much trouble which will give us the power to think for ourselves and to put that thought into words.

Yours for Freedom,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

THE SUBJECT OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE

416. We have found that the two parts of a simple sentence are the complete subject and the complete predicate. The noun is most often used as the subject of a sentence. It may have a number of modifiers, but when we strip away these modifiers we can usually find a noun which is the subject of the sentence. Occasionally the subject is a pronoun or a participle or adjective used as a noun but most frequently the subject is a noun. As for example:

- A wild piercing cry rang out.

- Hopeless, helpless children work in the cotton mills.

- The golden age of peace will come.

- Little child lives are coined into money.

- Defenseless, helpless children suffer most under capitalism.

- Every neglected child smites my conscience in the name of humanity.

- The thrilling, far-sounding battle-cry shall resound.

Note that in all of these sentences the word in italics is a noun, which is the simple subject of the sentence. All of the other words which comprise the complete subject are the modifiers of this noun, or modifiers of its modifiers.

But in our study of words, we have found that there are a number of other words which can be used in place of a noun and these may all be used as the subject of a sentence.

417. A pronoun may be used as the subject of a sentence, for the pronoun is a word used in place of the noun; and a pronoun used as the subject of a sentence may have modifiers just as a noun. It may be modified by adjectives or adjective phrases, as for example:

- We are confident of success.

- He, worried and out of employment, committed suicide.

- She, heartsick and weary, waited for an answer.

- She, with her happy, watchful ways, blessed the household.

- They, victorious and triumphant, entered the city.

- How can I, without money or friends, succeed?

"Out of the night that covers me,

Black as the pit from pole to pole,

I thank whatever Gods there be

For my unconquerable soul."

In all of these sentences the pronoun is the simple subject of the sentence, and the pronoun with all of its modifiers is the complete subject of the sentence.

418. The participle may be used as a noun, the subject of the sentence. For example:

- Traveling is pleasant.

Here the present participle traveling is used as a noun, subject of the sentence.

Participle phrases may also be used as nouns, as for example:

- Being prepared will not save us from war.

- His having signed the note was the cause of the trouble.

In these sentences, being prepared and having signed are participle phrases used as nouns, the subjects of the verbs will save and was. Note the use of the participle used as the subject in the following sentences:

- Painting is an art.

- Making shoes is his work.

- Being discovered seems to be the real crime.

- His having joined his comrades was a brave act.

- Your remaining here will be dangerous.

Note that when the participle is used as a noun, the possessive form of the pronoun is always used with it, as in the sentence above:

- Your remaining here will be dangerous.

Notice that in some of these sentences the participle has an object; as, making shoes, his having joined his comrades. The participle still retains some of its verb nature in that it may take an object. The entire phrases, His having joined his comrades, and, Making shoes, are the subjects of the sentences.

419. The infinitive may also be used as a noun, the subject of the sentence. Note in the following sentences the use of the infinitive as the subject of the sentence:

- To err is human; to forgive is divine.

- To be or not to be is the question.

- To toil all day is wearisome.

- To aim is one thing; to hit the mark is another.

- To remain ignorant is to remain a slave.

420. An adjective can also be used as the subject. You remember in our study of adjectives we found that an adjective may be used as a noun, as for example:

- The strong enslave the weak.

Here the adjective strong is used as a noun, subject of the sentence. Note in the following sentences, the use of the adjectives as subjects:

- The wise instruct the ignorant.

- The dead were left upon the battlefields.

- The rich look down upon the poor.

- The mighty of the earth have forced this war upon us.

- The poor are enslaved by their ignorance.

- The wounded were carried to the hospitals.

PLACE OF THE SUBJECT IN A SENTENCE

The subject usually comes first in the sentence. If it has any modifiers, they alone precede the subject, as for example:

- A wonderful, inspiring lecture was given.

- The weary army slept in the trenches.

But occasionally we find the subject after the verb.

421. By simple inversion.

We will often find this use in poetry or in poetic prose, as for example:

- Never have I heard one word to the contrary.

In this sentence I is the subject of the sentence, have heard is the verb, and never is an adverb modifying the verb phrase, have heard. But in order to place emphasis upon the word never, which is the emphatic word in the sentence, never is placed first, and the verb phrase inverted so that the subject I comes in between the two words which form the verb phrase. The sentence expressed in its usual order would be:

- I have never heard one word to the contrary.

You will note that this statement does not carry the same emphasis upon the word never as the inverted statement.

422. In interrogative sentences, the subject comes after the helping verb or after the interrogative used to introduce the sentence. As for example:

- Have you heard the news?

- When will we hear from you?

- How have the people been managing?

- What will the children do then?

- Will the students come later?

- Can the work be accomplished quickly?

- Must our youth end so quickly?

423. The real subject comes after the verb when we use the introductory word it. As for example:

- It will not be safe to go.

To go is really the subject of the sentence. To go will not be safe.

It is sometimes the real subject of a sentence, as in the sentence; It is a wonderful story.

Here it is the subject of the sentence and a wonderful story is the predicate complement. But in the sentence:

- It is wonderful to hear him tell the story.

To hear him tell the story is the real subject of the sentence. The first sentence, It is a wonderful story, could not be rewritten, but the second sentence could be rewritten, as follows:

- To hear him tell the story is wonderful.

424. The introductory word there reverses the order of the sentence, just as the introductory word it. The real subject is used later in the sentence. As for example:

- There were a great many people present.

This could be rewritten, omitting the introductory word there. We could say:

- A great many people were present.

The noun people is the subject of the sentence.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences, underscore the complete subject with one line, and the simple subject with two lines, and decide whether the simple subject is a noun, pronoun, participle, infinitive or an adjective used as a noun:

1. A great man is universal and elemental.

2. To love justice was his creed.

3. A more inspiring and noble declaration of faith was never born of human heart.

4. The reading of good books should begin in childhood.

5. Dreaming of great things will not bring us to the goal.

6. The weary seek for rest.

7. To believe in yourself is the first essential.

8. He, speaking and writing constantly for the cause, has given his life to the movement.

9. To remain ignorant is to remain a slave.

10. A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds.

11. A great soul has simply nothing to do with consistency.

12. To be great is to be misunderstood.

13. Traveling is a fool's paradise.

14. It is not enough to be sincere.

15. We, seeking the truth, have found our own.

16. There are thousands of comrades with us.

THE COMPLETE PREDICATE

425. Look first in the predicate for your verb. It will always be the principal part of your predicate. It may be a verb or a verb phrase, but the first thing in analyzing the complete predicate of the sentence is to find the verb. The verb or verb phrase without any of its modifiers constitutes the simple predicate. If the verb is a complete verb, its only modifiers will be adverbs or adverb phrases. For example:

- A splendid statue of Lincoln stands yonder in the park.

In this sentence, stands yonder in the park is the complete predicate. Stands is a complete verb. It requires no object, but it is modified by the adverb yonder and by the adverb phrase in the park.

INCOMPLETE VERBS

426. If the verb in the predicate is an incomplete verb of action, then the object of the verb is also part of the predicate. The complete predicate containing an incomplete verb of action may contain five parts; a verb, a direct object, an indirect object, an adverb and an adverb phrase. As for example:

- The tailor gladly made him a coat at that time.

In this sentence, the complete predicate is gladly made him a coat at that time. Made is the verb. It is an incomplete verb of action, and coat is its direct object. Him is the indirect object. Made is also modified by the adverb gladly, and the adverb phrase, at that time.

All of these are not always used, of course, in every predicate; but these are the elements which may occur in the predicate with an incomplete verb.

THE OBJECT OF THE VERB

427. Words used as objects of a verb are practically the same as those which may be used for its subject.

We may have a noun used as the object of the verb. For example:

- Hail destroyed the crops.

- The banks rob the farmers.

- We must educate the children.

- Labor produces all wealth.

In these sentences, crops, farmers, children and wealth are nouns used as the object of the verb.

A pronoun may also be used as the object of a verb. For example:

- Will you not teach me?

- Send them to her.

- They have invited us.

- The comrades will remember him.

In the above sentences, me, them, us and him are the objects of the verbs, will teach, send, have invited and will remember.

Remember that in pronouns we have a different form for the object form, as, me, her, him, us and them.

428. An infinitive may also be used as the object of a verb, thus:

- I like to study.

- He asked to go.

- I want to learn all that I can.

In this last sentence, the infinitive, to learn, is the direct object of the verb want. The object of the infinitive, to learn, is all that I can. All of this taken together with the verb want, forms the complete predicate, want to learn all that I can.

429. The participle may also be used as the object of a verb, thus:

- We heard the thundering of the cannon.

- We enjoyed the dancing.

- Do you hear the singing of the birds?

In these sentences, the participles thundering, dancing, and singing are the objects of the verbs heard, enjoyed and do hear.

430. An adjective used as a noun may also be used as the object of a verb, thus:

- I saw the rich and the poor struggling together.

- The struggle for existence crushes the weak.

- Seek the good and the true.

In these sentences the adjectives rich, poor, weak, good and true, are used as nouns and are the objects of the verbs saw, crushes and seek.

VERBS OF STATE OR CONDITION

We have found that with the incomplete verbs of state or condition, or copulative verbs, the predicate complement may be either a noun, as, The man is a hero; or an adjective, as, The man is class-conscious; or a phrase, as, The man is in earnest.

- The predicate complement may also be:

431. A pronoun; as,

- Who is she?

- That was he.

- This is I.

In these sentences the subjects of the verbs are she, that and this, and the pronouns who, he and I are used as predicate complements.

432. Infinitives may also be used as the predicate complement, thus:

- To remain ignorant is to remain a slave.

To remain ignorant, is the subject of the copulative verb is, and the infinitive, to remain, with its complement, a slave, is the predicate complement.

433. A participle used as a noun may also be used as the predicate complement, thus:

- Society is the mingling of many elements.

Mingling, in this sentence is a participle of the verb mingle, but is used as a noun, the predicate complement of the verb is. Society is the subject of the verb.

Where the present participle is used to form a verb phrase, the participle is part of the verb phrase, thus:

- We are mingling in society.

Here, are mingling, is the present progressive verb phrase, and the participle mingling is not used as a noun or adjective, but is part of the verb phrase are mingling.

If you will observe the different parts of speech carefully, you will not be easily confused as to whether the participle is a noun or a part of the verb phrase.

Exercise 2

In the following sentences the incomplete verbs, including infinitives and participles, are in italics. Mark the words, phrases or clauses which are used as objects or complements, to complete the meaning of these verbs.

There is no such thing in America as an independent press, unless it is in the country towns.

You have it and I know it. There is not one of you who dares to write his honest opinions. If you did, you know beforehand that it would never appear in print.

I am paid $150.00 a week for keeping my honest opinions out of the paper with which I am connected. Others of you are paid similar salaries for similar things. Any one of you who would be so foolish as to write his honest opinions would be out on the streets looking for another job.

The business of the New York journalist is to destroy the truth, to lie outright, to pervert, to villify, to fawn at the feet of Mammon, and to sell his race and his country for his daily bread.

You know this and I know it. So what folly is this to be toasting an "Independent Press."

We are the tools and vassals of rich men behind the scenes. We are the jumping-jacks; they pull the strings and we dance. Our talents, our possibilities and our lives are all the property of other men. We are intellectual prostitutes.—John Swinton.

MODIFIERS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

434. Remember that a simple sentence is one that contains a single statement, question or command. It is a clause, for it contains a subject and a predicate; but it contains only the one subject and the one predicate. A sentence containing two principal clauses, or a principal clause and a subordinate clause, would contain two complete statements, questions or commands, therefore it would not be a simple sentence, but compound or complex.

Remember, however, that the simple sentences may contain two or more subjects with the same predicate, or two or more predicates with the same subject, or both a compound subject and a compound predicate.

435. The modifiers in a simple sentence are always words or phrases. The modifiers of the subject are either adjectives or adjective phrases. The modifiers of the predicate are either adverbs or adverb phrases. If an adjective or an adverb clause is used as a modifier, then the sentence is no longer a simple sentence, but becomes a complex sentence, for it now contains a dependent clause.

ORDER OF ELEMENTS

436. The usual order of the principal elements in the sentence is the subject, the predicate and the object or complement, thus:

Subject

Predicate

Men

work

Subject

Predicate

Object

Men

build

houses

Subject

Predicate

Complement

Books

are

helpful

This is called the natural or logical order. Logical means according to sense or reason.

Adjectives usually stand before the nouns they modify, thus:

- Good books are helpful.

Adverbs may be placed either before or after the verbs they modify, thus:

- The men then came quickly to the rescue.

The adverb then precedes the verb came, which it modifies; and the adverb quickly is placed after the verb.

Adverbs which modify adjectives or other adverbs are placed before the words which they modify, thus:

- The more industrious students learn quite rapidly.

In this sentence, the adverb more is placed before the adjective industrious, which it modifies; and the adverb quite is placed before the adverb rapidly, which it modifies.

Adjective and adverb phrases usually follow the words which they modify, thus:

- The men in the car came quickly to the rescue.

- The manager of the mine remained with the men.

In this last sentence, the adjective phrase, of the mine, is placed after the noun manager, which it modifies, and the adverb phrase, with the men, is placed after the verb remained, which it modifies.

437. These sentences illustrate the logical order in which the elements of the sentence usually come. But this logical order is not strictly adhered to. Many times, in order to place the emphasis upon certain words, we reverse this order and place the emphasized words first, as:

- Without your help, we cannot win.

The logical order of this sentence is:

- We cannot win without your help.

But we want to place the emphasis upon your help, so we change the order of the words and place the phrase, without your help, first.

438. This inversion of the order helps us to express our thought with more emphasis. Our language is so flexible that we can express the same thought in different ways by simply changing the order of the elements in the sentence. Notice in the following sentences, the inversion of the usual order, and see what difference this makes in the expression of the thought.

- Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.

- A more terrible scene you cannot imagine.

- With the shrieking of shot and shell the battle raged.

- Louder and louder thundered the tempest.

- Silently and sadly the men returned to their homes.

To transpose these inverted sentences—that is to place the elements in their logical order, gives us an insight into the thought expressed in the sentence. It is worth a great deal to us to be able in our reading to see the live elements in the sentence at a glance, and in this way we can grasp at once the thought of the sentence. So you will find that this analyzing of the sentences is very helpful to us in our reading.

439. When we have learned to analyze a sentence quickly we will not be lost in the maze of words. A paragraph is often like a string of pearls. The author has a single thread of thought running through the different sentences which compose the paragraph and if we have trained ourselves well in sentence analysis, we will never lose this thread. It will be like a life line to which we cling while the breakers of thought and emotion roar about us.

Exercise 3

In the following poem, study carefully the inverted order of the sentences. Rewrite them, placing the elements in their logical order. As for example:

- To the poor man you've been true from of old.

The elements of the sentence are inverted in this quotation. Rewritten in their logical order this would read:

- You've been true to the poor man from of old.

You will note that this inversion is quite common in poetry.

HUNGER AND COLD

Sisters, two, all praise to you,

With your faces pinched and blue;

To the poor man you've been true,

From of old;

You can speak the keenest word,

You are sure of being heard,

From the point you're never stirred,

Hunger and Cold!

Let sleek statesmen temporize;

Palsied are their shifts and lies

When they meet your bloodshot eyes,

Grim and bold;

Policy you set at naught,

In their traps you'll not be caught,

You're too honest to be bought,

Hunger and Cold!

Let them guard both hall and bower;

Through the window you will glower,

Patient till your reckoning hour

Shall be tolled;

Cheeks are pale, but hands are red,

Guiltless blood may chance be shed,

But ye must and will be fed,

Hunger and Cold!

God has plans man must not spoil,

Some were made to starve and toil,

Some to share the wine and oil,

We are told;

Devil's theories are these,

Stifling hope and love and peace,

Framed your hideous lusts to please,

Hunger and Cold!

Scatter ashes on thy head,

Tears of burning sorrow shed,

Earth! and be by Pity led

To love's fold;

Ere they block the very door

With lean corpses of the poor,

And will hush for naught but gore,

Hunger and Cold!

—Lowell.

SPELLING

LESSON 25

You remember in our lesson in the study of consonants we found there were a number of consonants in English which had more than one sound; for example, c, s, g, x, etc.

A number of other consonants have sounds which are similar; that is, they are made with the organs of articulation in the same position, only one is a soft, and the other a hard sound; for example, p and b, t and d, f and v, etc. These sounds are called cognate sounds. Cognate means literally of the same nature, and so these sounds are of the same nature, only in one the obstruction of the vocal organs is more complete than in the other.

Our language contains a number of words in which there is a difference in the pronunciation of the final consonant when the word is used as a noun and as a verb. The final consonants in these words are the cognate sounds, f, v; t, d; th soft or th hard, s soft, or s hard. When the consonant sound is a soft sound, the word is a noun; and when the consonant sound is a hard sound the word is a verb. For example; use and use; breath and breathe; life and live, etc.

The spelling lessons for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contain words ending in cognate sounds, in which the words ending with a soft sound are nouns and the words ending in the hard sounds are verbs. Add others to this list as they occur to you.

We have a number of words in the English beginning with ex. In some of these words, the ex has the sound of eks, and in some of the words the ex has the sound of egs. It is not easy at times to know which sound to use.

In regard to the use of ex, follow this rule: When a word beginning with ex is followed by an accented syllable beginning with a vowel, the ex is pronounced egs; in all other words ex is pronounced eks; for example, in executor, the ex is followed by an accented syllable beginning with a vowel, therefore, ex is pronounced egs. In execute, the ex is followed by an unaccented syllable beginning with a vowel, and therefore ex is pronounced eks. In explain, ex is followed by a syllable beginning with a consonant, and it is therefore pronounced eks.

Note that in words like exhibit, exhort, etc., the ex is followed by a vowel sound, the h being silent, and it is therefore, pronounced egs, for it is followed by an accented syllable beginning with a vowel sound.

The spelling list for Thursday, Friday and Saturday contains words beginning with ex. Watch carefully the pronunciation.

Monday

Excuse

Excuse

Abuse

Abuse

Grease

Grease

Sacrifice

Sacrifice

Device

Devise

Tuesday

Intent

Intend

Advice

Advise

Relief

Relieve

Cloth

Clothe

Reproof

Reprove

Wednesday

Ascent

Ascend

Strife

Strive

Mouth

Mouth

Grief

Grieve

Bath

Bathe

Thursday

- Exile

- Except

- Exhibit

- Expert

- Exempt

Friday

- Example

- Excellent

- Exhaust

- Exit

- Expropriate

Saturday

- Exercise

- Exist

- Experiment

- Exaggerate

- Explanation

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 26

Dear Comrade:

There are really two things which will come to us out of the study of grammar. One of these, which we discussed in our letter last week, is the power of logical thinking. The second is the ability to express our thoughts correctly; that is, according to accepted usage. So you can consider your spoken and written speech from two viewpoints. First, you can look to see if you have used the words correctly. We have noted these common errors especially in our study of the various parts of speech. There are certain errors we often make, as for example, using a plural noun with a singular verb, or using the past time form of the verb for the past participle.

We have noted a great many of these errors in our speech. We might make ourselves understood and express ourselves fairly accurately and still make these mistakes, but it is wise for us to try to eliminate them from our speech for several reasons. To those who understand the use of correct English, these mistakes mark us as ignorant and uneducated. No matter how important and absolutely accurate the thought we are expressing, if we make these grammatical errors, they very naturally discount our thought also. They feel that if we cannot speak correctly, in all probability we cannot think accurately, either.

Then, too, these words in our speech distract the attention of our hearers from the things which we are saying. It is like the mannerism of an actor. If he has any peculiar manner of walking or of talking and persists in carrying that into whatever character he is interpreting, we always see the actor himself, instead of the character which he is portraying. His mannerisms get in the way and interfere with our grasp of the idea.

So in music. You may be absorbed in a wonderful selection which some one is playing and if suddenly he strikes a wrong note, the discord distracts your attention and perhaps you never get back into the spirit of the music again.

So we must watch these common errors in our speech, but we must not let our study of English be simply that alone. The greatest benefit which we are deriving from this study is the analytic method of thought and the logical habit of mind, which the effort to express ourselves clearly and accurately and in well-chosen words will give us. Put as much time as you can possibly spare into this analysis of sentences. Take your favorite writer and analyze his sentences and find out what is his particular charm for you. If there is any sentence which gives you a little trouble and you cannot analyze it properly, copy it in your next examination paper and state where the difficulty lies. Rewrite the passages which please you most and then compare your version with the author's and see if you really grasped his meaning. In this way you will add quickly to your enjoyment of the writing of others and to your power of expressing yourself.

Yours for Freedom,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

440. We have been analyzing the simple sentence, which contains only words and phrases. We have found that there may enter into the simple sentence, the following elements:

1. The simple subject.

2. The simple predicate.

3. The modifiers of the subject.

4. The object of the verb.

5. The predicate complement.

6. The modifiers of the predicate.

This is not the order in which the elements will appear in the sentence, but this is the order of their importance. We first look for the simple subject and the simple predicate; then we can determine which words are the modifiers of the subject; then we find the object or predicate complement of the verb and the modifiers of the verb; and thus we have all of the elements which go into the construction of the simple sentence.

We may also have two nouns used as the subject or two verbs used in the predicate, connected by a co-ordinate conjunction, thus:

- Marx and Engels lived and worked together.

Here we have two proper nouns used as the subject, Marx and Engels. We have also two verbs used as the predicate, lived and worked. We call this a compound subject and compound predicate.

So in one simple sentence, that is a sentence which makes a single assertion, we may have every part of speech. For example:

- The most intelligent men and women think for themselves.

In this sentence, we have a noun, verb, pronoun, adjective, adverb, conjunction and preposition—every part of speech except the interjection, which is an independent element and does not enter into the construction of the sentence.

Exercise 1

Write simple sentences of your own containing:

1. A compound subject.

2. A compound predicate.

3. A noun as subject modified by one or more adjectives.

4. A noun as subject modified by a phrase.

5. An incomplete verb with a direct and an indirect object.

6. An incomplete verb with a predicate complement.

7. A predicate modified by one or more adverbs.

8. A predicate modified by an adverb phrase.

COMPLEX SENTENCES

441. The simple sentence is the unit of speech. It is a combination of words which makes a single statement, question or command. But many times a constant repetition of these short sentences would become tiresome, and our written and spoken speech would not flow as smoothly and rapidly as we desire. So we have evolved a way in which we may combine these sentences into longer statements. Let us take the two simple sentences:

- We are united.

- We shall succeed.

We may combine these into a single sentence by using the co-ordinate conjunction and. Then our sentence reads:

- We are united and we shall succeed.

This is a compound sentence, formed by uniting two simple sentences. Both of the clauses are independent and are of equal rank. Neither depends upon the other. They are united by the co-ordinate conjunction and. We can combine these sentences in a different way. For example, we may say:

- If we are united, we shall succeed.

Now we have a subordinate clause, if we are united, which is used to modify the verb of the main clause, succeed. We have used the subordinate conjunction if, and so we have a complex sentence formed by uniting the principal clause and a dependent clause.

442. The next step in sentence building, after the simple sentence, is the complex sentence. A complex sentence is a combination of two or more simple sentences, which are so united that one sentence remains the main sentence—the backbone, as it were—and the other sentence becomes subordinate or dependent upon it.

443. A complex sentence is one containing a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

A principal clause is one which makes a complete statement without the help of any other clause or clauses.

A subordinate or dependent clause is one which makes a statement dependent upon or modifying some word or words in the principal clause.

KINDS OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES

444. Dependent clauses are of three kinds. They may be used either as nouns, adjectives or adverbs, and so are called noun clauses, adjective clauses or adverb clauses.

NOUN CLAUSES

445. Noun clauses are those which are used in place of a noun. They may be used in any way in which a noun may be used, except as a possessive.

1. The noun clause may be used as the subject of the sentence. For example:

- That he is innocent is admitted by all.

The clause, that he is innocent is used as a noun, the subject of the sentence.

2. The noun clause may be used as the object of a verb, thus:

- I admit that I cannot understand your argument.

The clause, that I cannot understand your argument, is in this sentence the object of the verb admit.

3. The noun clause may be used as the predicate complement, thus:

- The fact is that this policy will never win.

The clause, that this policy will never win, is here used in the predicate with the copulative verb is.

4. The noun clause may also be used in apposition, explaining the noun with which it is used, thus:

- The motion, that the question should be reconsidered, was carried.

That the question should be reconsidered, is here a noun clause, used in apposition with the noun motion, and explains the meaning of the noun.

5. The noun clause may also be used as the object of a preposition, thus:

- I now refer to what he claims.

The noun clause, what he claims, is here the object of the preposition, to.

Exercise 2

In the following sentences the noun clauses are printed in italics. Determine whether they are used as the subject, or object of the verb, as predicate complement, in apposition, or as the object of a preposition.

1. The fact is that I was not listening.

2. Whatever King Midas looked upon turned to gold.

3. He acknowledged what we had suspected.

4. We will never know what the real situation was.

5. The fact that the wage is insufficient can be easily proved.

6. He replied to what had been asked.

7. The claim was that he had made a speech inciting to riot.

8. The law that labor unions are in restraint of trade was upheld.

9. That we cannot win by compromise is readily apparent.

10. Labor demands that it shall have its full product.

11. Whoever controls education controls the future.

12. He came to where the militia was in camp.

Exercise 3

Write sentences containing noun clauses used:

1. As the subject of a verb.

2. As the object of a verb.

3. As a predicate complement.

4. In apposition.

5. As the object of a preposition.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

446. A dependent clause in a complex sentence may also be an adjective clause.

An adjective clause is a clause used as an adjective, and, hence, always modifies a noun or some word used as a noun, such as a pronoun or a participle. In Lesson 22, we studied adjective clauses and found that they could be introduced by the relative pronouns, who, which, that and as, and also by conjunctions such as, when, where, whither, whence, etc. An adjective clause may modify any noun or any word used as a noun in the sentence.

1. An adjective clause may modify the subject, thus:

- Men who have become class-conscious do not make good soldiers.

In this sentence the clause, who have become class-conscious, modifies the noun men, and is introduced by the relative pronoun who.

2. An adjective clause may modify the noun which is the object of the verb, as:

- The men supported the party which fought for their rights.

Here the clause, which fought for their rights, is an adjective clause introduced by the pronoun which, and it modifies the noun party, which is the object of the verb supported.

3. An adjective clause may also be used to modify the noun which is used in the predicate complement, as:

- That was the book which I enjoyed.

In this sentence the clause, which I enjoyed, is an adjective clause modifying the noun book, which is used as the predicate complement with the copulative verb was.

4. An adjective clause may also be used to modify the noun which is used as the object of a preposition, as:

- He arrived on the train which was late.

Here the adjective clause, which was late, modifies the noun train, which is the object of the preposition on.

Sometimes it is a little difficult to discover these adjective clauses, for frequently the connecting word is omitted, as for example:

- I could not find the man I wanted.

In this sentence, the pronoun whom is omitted; the complete sentence would read:

- I could not find the man whom I wanted.

Whom I wanted is an adjective clause modifying the noun man.

Exercise 4

In the following sentences the relative pronouns and the conjunctions introducing adjective clauses are omitted. Rewrite the sentences using the proper relative pronouns and conjunctions. The adjective clauses are in italics.

1. The people you are seeking are not here.

2. I have read the book you brought.

3. The articles you mentioned are not listed.

4. I will go to the place you say.

5. This is a book you should read.

6. Those are ideals the people will readily grasp.

7. We make Gods of the things we fear.

8. I listened to every word he said.

9. I should love the cause you love.

10. The things the people demand are just and right.

Exercise 5

In the following sentences the adjective clauses are all printed in italics. Determine whether they modify the subject or the object, the predicate complement or the object of the preposition.

1. In that moment when he saw the light he joined our cause.

2. Other men are lenses through which we read our own minds.

3. This is perhaps the reason why we are unable to agree.

4. He that loveth maketh his own the grandeur that he loves.

5. The other terror that scares us from self-trust is our consistency.

6. There is a popular fable of a sot who was picked up dead drunk in the street, carried to the Duke's house, washed and dressed and laid in the Duke's bed, and, on his waking, treated with all ceremony like a duke and assured that he had been insane.

7. He who would gather immortal palms must not be hindered by the name of goodness, but must explore if it be goodness.

8. Superstition, who is the mother of fear and faith, still rules many people.

9. We are looking for the time when the useful shall be the honorable.

10. He who enslaves another cannot be free.

11. He who attacks the right assaults himself.

12. The force that is in every atom and every star, in everything that grows and thinks, that hopes and suffers, is the only possible God.

13. He who adds to the sum of human misery is a blasphemer.

14. The grandest ambition that can enter the soul is the desire to know the truth.

ADVERB CLAUSES

447. The third kind of clause which we may use in a complex sentence is the adverb clause.

An adverb clause is a clause which takes the place of an adverb. It may modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. We studied adverb clauses in lesson 21 and we found eight classes of adverb clauses, expressing time, place, cause or reason, manner, comparison, condition, purpose and result. For example:

1. Adverb clause of time: No man is truly free until all are free.

2. Adverb clause of place: We must live where we can find work.

3. Adverb clause expressing cause or reason: We lost the strike because the men were not class-conscious.

4. Adverb clause of manner: We must work as if the result depended entirely upon us.

5. Adverb clause of comparison: The working class must become more class-conscious than it is today.

6. Adverb clause of condition: We will continue to be exploited if we do not demand our rights.

7. Adverb clause expressing purpose: We must read the labor press in order that we may know the truth concerning conditions.

8. Adverb clause expressing result: The battle raged so furiously that thousands were slain.

ANALYZING COMPLEX SENTENCES

448. To analyze a complex sentence; that is, to break it up into its different parts—treat the sentence first as a whole, then find the simple subject and the simple predicate. If a noun clause is the subject, treat it first as a noun. Treat adjective clauses as adjectives modifying certain words and the adverb clauses as adverbs modifying certain words.

In other words, analyze the sentence first as a simple sentence with dependent clauses considered as modifying words; then analyze each dependent clause as though it were a simple sentence. Make an outline like the following and use it in your analysis of the sentence. Let us take this sentence and analyze it:

- Conscious solidarity in the ranks would give the working class of the world, now, in our day, the freedom which they seek.

Simple subject, solidarity.

Simple predicate, would give.

Modifiers of the subject:

- Adjective, conscious.

- Adjective phrase, in the ranks.

- Adjective clause, (none).

Complete subject, Conscious solidarity in the ranks.

Modifiers of the predicate:

- Adverb, now.

- Adverb phrase, in our day.

- Adverb clause, (none).

Direct object, freedom.

Modifiers of direct object:

- Adjective, the.

- Adjective phrase, (none).

- Adjective clause, which they seek,

Indirect object, class.

Modifiers of indirect object:

- Adjectives, the, working.

- Adjective phrase, of the world.

- Adjective clause, (none).

Complete predicate, would give the working class of the world, now, in our day, the freedom which they seek.

Analyze the dependent clause, which they seek, just as a principal clause is analyzed. They is the simple subject, seek is the simple predicate, which is the direct object. The complete predicate is seek which.

449. Notice that the first two sentences given in the exercise below are imperative sentences,—the subject, the pronoun you, being omitted so that the entire sentence is the complete predicate. As for example: Take the place which belongs to you. The omitted subject is the pronoun you. Take the place which belongs to you is the complete predicate, made up of the simple predicate take; its object, the noun place; the adjective the, and the adjective clause, which belongs to you, both of which modify the noun place.

Exercise 6

Using the outline given above, analyze the following complex sentences.

1. Take the place which belongs to you.

2. Let us believe that brave deeds will never die.

3. The orator knows that the greatest ideas should be expressed in the simplest words.

4. Gratitude is the fairest flower that sheds its perfume in the human heart.

5. Children should be taught that it is their duty to think for themselves.

6. We will be slaves as long as we are ignorant.

7. We must teach our fellow men that honor comes from within.

8. Cause and effect cannot be severed for the effect already blooms in the cause.

9. Men measure their esteem of each other by what each has.

10. Our esteem should be measured by what each is.

11. What I must do is all that concerns me.

12. The great man is he who, in the midst of the crowd, keeps the independence of solitude.

13. The only right is what is after my constitution.

14. Whoso would be a man must be a non-conformist.

15. They who build on ideas build for eternity.

Exercise 7

We have studied all the parts of speech, and now our work is to combine these parts for the expression of thought. It will be good practice and very helpful to us to mark these different parts of speech in our reading. This helps us to grow familiar with their use. It also helps us to add words to our vocabulary and to learn how to use them correctly. In the following quotation, mark underneath each word, the name of every part of speech. Use n. for noun, v. for verb, pro. for pronoun, adv. for adverb, adj. for adjective, p. for preposition and c. for conjunction. Write v. p. under the verb phrases. For example:

The

workers

of

the

world

do

not

have,

adj.

n.

p.

adj.

n.

v.p.

adv.

v.p.

under

this

system,

very

many

opportunities

p.

adj.

n.

adv.

adj.

n.

for

rest

and

pleasure

for

themselves.

p.

n.

c.

n.

p.

pro.

Mark in this manner every part of speech in the following quotation:

The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.

Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guildmaster and journeyman,—in a word, oppressor and oppressed,—stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary re-constitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.

In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost everywhere a complicated arrangement of society into various orders, a manifold gradation of social rank. In ancient Rome we have patricians, knights, plebeians, slaves; in the middle ages, feudal lords, vassals, guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in almost all of these classes, again, subordinate gradations.

The modern bourgeois society, that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society, has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones. —Communist Manifesto.

Exercise 8

In the following quotation, mark all of the clauses and determine whether they are dependent or independent clauses. If they are dependent clauses, determine whether they are noun, adjective or adverb clauses. Mark all the sentences and tell whether they are simple or complex.

I see in the near future a crisis approaching that unnerves me, and causes me to tremble for the safety of my country. As a result of war, corporations have been enthroned, and an era of corruption in high places will follow. The money power of the country will endeavor to prolong its reign by working upon the prejudices of the people, until all the wealth is aggregated in a few hands, and the republic is destroyed. I feel at this moment more anxiety for the safety of our country than ever before, even in the midst of war. God grant that my forebodings may be groundless. Monarchy itself is sometimes hinted at as a refuge from the power of the people. In my present position I could scarcely be justified were I to omit to raise a warning voice against the approach of a returning despotism.... It is assumed that labor is available only in connection with capital; that nobody labors unless somebody else, owning capital, somehow, by the use of it, induces him to labor. Labor is prior to and independent of capital. Capital is only the fruit of labor, and could not have existed if labor had not first existed. Labor is the superior of capital, and deserves much the higher consideration. I bid the laboring people beware of surrendering the power which they possess, and which, if surrendered, will surely be used to shut the door of advancement for such as they, and fix new disabilities and burdens upon them until all of liberty shall be lost.

In the early days of our race the Almighty said to the first of mankind, "In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread," and since then, if we except the light and air of Heaven, no good thing has been or can be enjoyed by us without first having cost labor. And inasmuch as most good things have been produced by labor, it follows that all such things belong of right to those whose labor has produced them. But it has so happened, in all ages of the world, that some have labored and others have without labor enjoyed a large portion of the fruits. This is wrong, and should not continue. To secure to each laborer the whole product of his labor, as nearly as possible, is a worthy object of any government.

It seems strange that any man should dare to ask a just God's assistance in wringing bread from the sweat of other men's faces.

This country, with its institutions, belongs to the people who inhabit it. —Lincoln.

Exercise 9

In the following poem find all of the assertive, interrogative and imperative sentences. Mark all of the simple sentences and all of the complex sentences. Mark all of the dependent clauses and determine whether each is used as a noun, adjective or adverb clause. The verbs and the verb phrases are in italics.

Shall you complain who feed the world,

Who clothe the world,

Who house the world?

Shall you complain who are the world,

Of what the world may do?

As from this hour you are the power,

The world must follow you.

The world's life hangs on your right hand,

Your strong right hand,

Your skilled right hand;

You hold the whole world in your hand;

See to it what you do!

For dark or light or wrong or right,

The world is made by you.

Then rise as you never rose before,

Nor hoped before,

Nor dared before;

And show as never was shown before

The power that lies in you.

Stand all as one; see justice done;

Believe and dare and do.

—Charlotte Perkins Gilman.

SPELLING

LESSON 26

In our last lesson we had examples of words in which the s had the soft sound, and also of words in which the s had the sound of z. In some English words, it is difficult to determine which sound to use. There are a number of words in English beginning with dis. In a few of the words, the s has the sound of z, and in other words it has the sound of s. There are only a few words which are pronounced with the diz sound. Discern, dismal and dissolve are always pronounced with the diz sound. Disease and disaster are pronounced both ways. Some dictionaries give the diz sound and some give the dis sound.

The spelling lesson for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday contains a number of words beginning with dis. Be sure of the pronunciation. Run through the words in the dictionary beginning with the dis sound and mark those in which the dis has the sound of diz.

We have also a number of words in the English language which end in ise or ize, and we are often confused to know which ending to use. There is a rule, which has very few exceptions, which covers the use of ise and ize. Words should be spelled with the ize ending when the ize can be cut off, and the word that is left can be used alone. For example; author, authorize. In this word you can cut off the ize and the word author can be used alone. But in the word exercise, if you cut off the ise, the remaining portion cannot be used alone.

Recognize and criticise are exceptions to this rule. When used as a suffix added to a noun or adjective to form a verb, ize is the proper ending; as theory, theorize, civil, civilize, etc. Final e or y is dropped before ize, as in the words memorize, sterilize, etc.

The spelling lesson for Thursday, Friday and Saturday contains a number of common words ending with ize or ise. Study carefully this list and add as many words to it as you can.

Monday

- Disappear

- Distress

- Discern

- Disburse

- Discipline

Tuesday

- Discount

- Discredit

- Distribute

- Dismal

- Disseminate

Wednesday

- Disguise

- Distance

- Dissolve

- Discontent

- Disposition

Thursday

- Franchise

- Civilize

- Surprise

- Organize

- Compromise

Friday

- Monopolize

- Revise

- Legalize

- Enterprise

- Capitalize

Saturday

- Memorize

- Advertise

- Theorize

- Comprise

- Systematize

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 27

Dear Comrade:

Ingersoll said: "Words are the garments of thought and the robes of ideas." This is a beautiful and poetic way of expressing the relationship between words and thoughts. Words are really the body which we give to our thoughts. Until they are clothed in words, our thoughts are only ghosts of ideas. Other people cannot see or come into contact with them, and they can have but little influence upon the world.

Without thought, no language is possible. It is equally true that without language, no growth of thought is possible. It is futile to try to determine which is first, language or thought. The two are entirely necessary to each other and make possible social and individual development.

Every time that you add a word to your vocabulary, you have added to your mental equipment. You have also added greatly to your power of enjoyment. Through these words you will come into a new relationship to your fellow men. Each new word enlarges the circle of your acquaintance. A knowledge of language brings us into a circle of wonderful friends. When we have learned to read we need never more be lonely. Some one has written in a book somewhere just the thing we are hungry for at this moment.

In the pages of a book we can meet and talk with the great souls who have written in these pages their life's experience. No matter what mood you are in, you can find a book to suit that mood. No matter what your need, there is a book which meets that need. Form the habit of reading and you will find it a wonderful source of pleasure and of profit.

Nor do we need to be barred because of our lack of educational advantages in our youth. Buckle, the author of the greatest history that has ever been written, left school at the age of fourteen, and it is said that at that age, except a smattering of mathematics, he knew only how to read; but when he died at the age of forty, this man, who did not know his letters when he was eight years old, could read and write seven languages and was familiar with ten or twelve more. He had written a wonderful book and had become a teacher of teachers. Engraven upon his marble altar tomb is the following couplet:

"The written word remains long after the writer.

The writer is resting under the earth, but his words endure."

Good books are so cheap nowadays that they are within the reach of every one of us. Let us not be content to live in the narrow world of work and worry. Let us forget the struggle occasionally in the reading of books, and let us prepare ourselves, by reading and studying, for the battle for the emancipation of the workers of the world.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

KINDS OF SENTENCES

450. A simple sentence is a sentence which makes a single assertion, question or command.

The simple sentence contains only words and phrases.

451. A complex sentence is one which contains a principal statement and one or more modifying statements.

The statements made in addition to the principal statement are made in dependent clauses. The complex sentence has only one main clause and one or more dependent clauses.

452. A compound sentence is one which contains two or more independent clauses.

These compound sentences may contain any number of dependent clauses but they must always have at least two independent or principal clauses. These principal clauses are always connected by co-ordinate conjunctions, for the principal clauses in a compound sentence are always of equal rank or order.

Exercise 1

Review the lesson on co-ordinate conjunctions and notice which conjunctions are used to unite principal clauses into single sentences. Use these co-ordinate conjunctions to unite the following pairs of simple sentences into compound sentences. For example:

- The sun rises and the day dawns.

- The men work but the boys play.

The sun rises.

The day dawns.

He studies diligently.

He learns rapidly.

He came early.

He could not stay.

The weather is cold.

The plants are not growing.

The men work.

The boys play.

The day is cold.

The wind is blowing.

Take the above sentences and use subordinate instead of co-ordinate conjunctions, and make complex sentences instead of compound out of each pair of simple sentences. For example:

- When the sun rises, the day dawns.

- The men work while the boys play.

KINDS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES

453. Compound sentences may be made up of two simple sentences.

Rewrite the following compound sentences, making of each sentence two simple sentences:

- The birds are singing and spring is here.

- He believes in war but his brother is against it.

- We must arouse ourselves or we shall be involved.

- He will not study nor will he allow any one else to study.

454. A compound sentence may be made up of a simple sentence and a complex sentence, joined by a co-ordinate conjunction. For example:

- John goes to school, but Mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother.

This compound sentence is made up of the simple sentence, John goes to school, and the complex sentence, Mary stays at home in orderthat she may help her mother.

455. Both parts of the compound sentence may be complex; that is, both principal clauses in a compound sentence may contain dependent clauses. For example:

- John goes to school where his brother goes, but Mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother.

This compound sentence is made up of two complex sentences. The sentence, John goes to school where his brother goes, is complex because it contains the dependent clause, where his brother goes; the sentence, Mary stays at home in order that she may help her mother, is complex because it contains the dependent clause, in order that she may help her mother.

Exercise 2

Read carefully the following sentences, determine which are simple sentences, which are complex and which are compound.

1. When the state is corrupt, then the laws are most multiplied.

2. To teach the alphabet is to inaugurate revolution.

3. Freedom degenerates unless it has to struggle in its own defense.

4. The destroyers have always been honored.

5. Liberty of thought is a mockery if liberty of speech is denied.

6. Where slavery is, there liberty cannot be; and where liberty is, there slavery cannot be.

7. All our greatness was born of liberty and we cannot strangle the mother without destroying her children.

8. In the twentieth century, war will be dead, but man will live.

9. The abuse of free speech dies in a day, but the denial entombs the hope of the race.

SENTENCE ANALYSIS

456. There is no more important part of the study of English than the analysis of sentences. The very best result that can come to one from the study of grammar is the logical habit of mind. The effort to analyze a difficult passage gives us a fuller appreciation of its meaning. This cultivates in us accuracy, both of thought and of expression. So, spend as much time as you can on the analysis of sentences.

The subject and the predicate are the very body of the sentence, upon which all the rest of the sentence is hung. The other parts of the sentence are but the drapery and the garments which clothe the body of the sentence. Hence, the most important thing in sentence analysis is to be able to discover the subject and predicate.

In the expression of a thought, there are always two important essentials, that about which something is said,—which constitutes the subject,—and that which is said about the subject, which constitutes the predicate.

There may be a number of modifying words, phrases or subordinate clauses, but there is always a main clause which contains a simple subject and a simple predicate. Find these first, and you can then fit the modifying words and phrases and clauses into their proper places.

457. Let us take for study and analysis the following paragraph from Jack London:

Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting has not diminished since the day of the cave-man. It has increased a thousand-fold. Wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions have been made. Why then do millions of modern men live more miserably than the cave-man lived?

Let us take the first sentence out of this paragraph and analyze it. Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting has not diminished since the day of the cave-man. What is the main word in this sentence—the word about which the entire statement is made? Clearly it is the word efficiency. Efficiency is the noun which is the subject of the sentence.

Then you might ask what sort of efficiency and whose efficiency? What sort of efficiency is explained by the adjective phrase, for food-getting and shelter-getting. Whose efficiency is explained by the possessive noun, man's. Therefore, the complete subject is, Man's efficiency for food-getting and shelter-getting.

Now we are ready to consider the predicate. What has efficiency done? It has not diminished. Has diminished is the verb phrase, which is the simple predicate of this sentence. It is modified by the adverb not, so we have Man's efficiency has not diminished. Then we might ask, when has it not diminished? And this is answered by the phrase, since the day of the cave-man. So we have our complete predicate, Has not diminished since the day of the cave-man.

In this way we can analyze or break up into its different parts, every sentence. First find the subject, then ask what that subject does, and the answer will be the predicate or verb. Do not confuse the verb with the words which state how or why the action is performed, and do not confuse the verb with the object of the action. The verb simply asserts the action. The other words will add the additional information as to how or why or when or upon whom the action was performed.

Let us finish the analysis of the sentences in the paragraph quoted from Jack London. In the second sentence, It has increased a thousand-fold, the personal pronoun it, which refers to the noun efficiency, is the subject of the sentence; and when you ask what it has done, you find that the question is answered by the verb, has increased. Therefore, has increased is the verb in the sentence. The noun, thousand-fold is used as an adverb telling how much it has increased. It is an adverb-noun, which you will find explained in Section 291.

In the next sentence, Wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions have been made, we find two nouns about which a statement is made.Artifices have been made and inventions have been made; so artifices and inventions are both the subjects of the sentence. Therefore, we have a compound subject with a single verb, have been made. Artifices is modified by the adjective wonderful, and inventions is modified by the adjective marvelous, so we have wonderful artifices and marvelous inventions, as the complete subject, and have been made, as the complete predicate.

In the last sentence, Why then do millions of modern men live more miserably than the cave-man lived?, we find a sentence which is a trifle more difficult of analysis. It is written in the interrogative form. If you find it difficult to determine the subject and the verb or verb phrase in an interrogative sentence, rewrite the sentence in the assertive form, and you will find it easier to analyze.

When we rewrite this sentence we have, Millions of modern men do live more miserably than the cave-man lived. Now it is evident that the noun millions is the subject of the sentence. We see quickly that men cannot be the subject because it is the object of the preposition of, in the phrase, of modern men. So we decide that the noun millions is the simple subject.

When we ask the question what millions do, our question is answered by the verb phrase, do live. So do live is the simple predicate, and the skeleton of our sentence, the simple subject and the simple predicate, is millions do live. The subject millions is modified by the adjective phrase of modern men.

Then we ask, how do men live? And we find our question answered by they live miserably. But we are told how miserably they live by the adverb more and the adverb clause, than the cave-man lived, both modifying the adverb miserably. So we have our complete predicate, do live more miserably than the cave-man lived.

This interrogative sentence is introduced by the interrogative adverb why.

Do not drop this subject until you are able to determine readily the subject and predicate in every sentence and properly place all modifying words. There is nothing that will so increase your power of understanding what you read, and your ability to write clearly, as this facility in analyzing sentences.

Exercise 3

The following is Elbert Hubbard's description of the child-laborers of the Southern cotton-mills. Read it carefully. Notice that the sentences are all short sentences, and the cumulative effect of these short sentences is a picture of the condition of these child-workers which one can never forget. The subjects and predicates are in italics. When you have finished your study of this question, rewrite it from memory and then compare your version with the original version.

I thought that I would lift one of the little toilers. I wanted to ascertain his weight. Straightway through his thirty-five pounds of skin and bone there ran a tremor of fear. He struggled forward to tie a broken thread. I attracted his attention by a touch. I offered him a silver dime. He looked at me dumbly from a face that might have belonged to a man of sixty. It was so furrowed, tightly drawn and full of pain. He did not reach for the money. He did not know what it was. There were dozens of such children in this particular mill. A physician who was with me said that they would probably all be dead in two years. Their places would be easily filled, however, for there were plenty more. Pneumonia carries off most of them. Their systems are ripe for disease and when it comes there is no rebound. Medicine simply does not act. Nature is whipped, beaten, discouraged. The child sinks into a stupor and dies.

Exercise 4

In the following sentences, mark the simple sentences, the complex sentences and the compound sentences, and analyze these sentences according to the rules given for analyzing simple sentences, complex sentences and compound sentences:

1. Force is no remedy.

2. Law grinds the poor, and the rich men rule the law.

3. Force and fraud are in war the two cardinal virtues.

4. Freedom is a new religion, a religion of our time.

5. Desire nothing for yourself which you do not desire for others.

6. An ambassador is a man who goes abroad to lie for the good of his country.

7. A journalist is a man who stays at home to pursue the same vocation.

8. Without free speech no search for truth is possible.

9. Liberty for the few is not liberty.

10. Liberty for me and slavery for you mean slavery for both.

11. No revolution ever rises above the intellectual level of those who make it.

12. Men submit everywhere to oppression when they have only to lift their heads to throw off the yoke.

13. Many politicians of our time are in the habit of saying that no people ought to be free till they are fit to use freedom. The maxim is worthy of the fool in the old story who resolved not to go into the water till he had learned to swim. If men are to wait for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery they may indeed wait forever.

SUMMARY

458. The following is a summary of that which we have learned in sentence building:

Sentences are classified according to

{

Use

{

Assertive

Interrogative

Imperative

Exclamatory

Form

{

Simple

Complex

Compound

Elements of The Sentence.

{

Words, the eight parts of speech.

Phrases, adjective, adverb and verb phrases.

Clauses, adjective, adverb and noun clauses.

459.

ESSENTIALS OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE

Subject

Predicate

Subject

Complete Verb

Subject

Copulative Verb

Predicate Complement

Subject

Transitive Verb

Direct Object

Subject

Transitive Verb

Direct Object

Indirect Object

460.

THE SUBJECT

The simple subject may be

{

Noun—The man came.

Pronoun—He came.

Adjective—The poor came.

Infinitive—To find work is difficult.

Participle—Walking is good exercise.

Clause—What I learn cannot be lost.

Complete subject

—

Simple subject and modifiers.

Modifiers of the Subject

Adjective

{

Word—Wealthy men rule.

Phrase—Men of wealth rule.

Clause—Men who are wealthy rule.

Possessive

—

The man's energy was great.

Appositive

{

Word—The poet, Lowell, was the author.

Clause—The fact, that you came, pleases me.

Participle

—

The soldiers, wounded and dying, were left on the field.

Infinitive

—

A plan to end the war was discussed.

461.

THE PREDICATE

The simple predicate

{

Verb—The man came.

Verb phrase—The man has been coming daily.

A COMPLETE

PREDICATE

equals a verb or

verb phrase and

{

Predicate Complement—The man was a hero.

Direct Object—The man brought the book.

The Indirect Object—The man brought me the book.

Adverb

Modifiers

{

Word—The man works rapidly.

Phrase—The man works in the factory.

Clause—The man works whenever he can.

SIMPLE SENTENCES CONTAIN ONLY

{

Words—The man works hard.

Phrases—The man on your right works in the factory.

Complex sentences contain

{

Words,Phrases and Dependent clauses.

The man works steadily in the factory whenever there is work.

Compound sentences contain

two or more principal clauses, as:

The sun rises and the day dawns.

462. Take the simple subjects and simple predicates in Exercise 5, and build up sentences; first, by adding a word, then a phrase and then a clause to modify the subject; then add a word and a phrase and a clause to modify the predicate.

So long as you have only words and phrases you have simple sentences. When you add a dependent clause you have a complex sentence. When you unite two independent clauses in one sentence, then you have a compound sentence, and the connecting word will always be a co-ordinate conjunction. These will be readily distinguished for there are only a few co-ordinate conjunctions.

Go back to the lesson on co-ordinate conjunctions and find out what these are, and whenever you find two clauses connected by these co-ordinate conjunctions you know that you have a compound sentence. Remember that each clause must contain a subject and predicate of its own. When you have two words connected by these co-ordinate conjunctions you do not have a clause. Each clause must contain a subject and a predicate of its own.

463. Here is an example of a sentence built up from a simple subject and a simple predicate:

SIMPLE SUBJECT ENLARGED

Simple Subject and Predicate—Soldiers obey.

Adjectives added—The enlisted soldiers obey.

Phrase added—The enlisted soldiers in the trenches obey.

Clause added—The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, who are doomed to die, obey.

SIMPLE PREDICATE ENLARGED

Simple Subject and Predicate—Soldiers obey.

Object added—Soldiers obey orders.

Adverb added—Soldiers obey orders quickly.

Phrase added—Soldiers obey orders quickly and without question.

Clause added—Soldiers obey orders quickly and without question because they are taught to do so.

Combining our enlarged subject and predicate we have the sentence:

- The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, who are doomed to die, obey orders quickly and without question because they are taught to do so.

This is a complex sentence because it contains dependent clauses. We might add another independent clause and make of this a compound sentence. For example:

- The enlisted soldiers in the trenches, who are doomed to die, obey orders quickly and without question because they are taught to do so, and this is patriotism.

Exercise 5

Enlarge the following simple subjects and simple predicates:

- Men write.

- Boys play.

- People study.

- The law rules.

Exercise 6

In the following poem underscore all of the dependent clauses. Determine whether they are noun, adjective or adverb clauses. Do you find any simple or compound sentences in this poem?

MEN! whose boast it is that ye

Come of fathers brave and free,

If there breathe on earth a slave,

Are you truly free and brave?

If ye do not feel the chain,

When it works a brother's pain,

Are ye not base slaves indeed,

Slaves unworthy to be freed?

Women! who shall one day bear

Sons to breathe New England air,

If ye hear without a blush,

Deeds to make the roused blood rush

Like red lava through your veins,

For your sisters now in chains,—

Answer! are you fit to be

Mothers of the brave and free?

Is true Freedom but to break

Fetters for our own dear sake,

And, with leathern hearts, forget

That we owe mankind a debt?

No! true freedom is to share

All the chains our brothers wear,

And, with heart and hand, to be

Earnest to make others free!

They are slaves who fear to speak

For the fallen and the weak;

They are slaves who will not choose

Hatred, scoffing, and abuse,

Rather than in silence shrink

From the truth they needs must think;

They are slaves who dare not be

In the right with two or three.

—Lowell.

SPELLING

LESSON 27

We have studied concerning the formation of derivatives by the addition of suffixes. Derivatives are also formed by the addition of prefixes. You remember that a prefix is a syllable which is placed before a simple word to form the derivative. Among the most common of these prefixes are in, un and mis. The prefix in used with an adjective or adverb means not; for example, insane means not sane; incorrect means not correct, etc.

The prefix in used with a noun means lack of; for example, inexperience means lack of experience; inability means lack of ability, etc.

In words beginning with m or p, in, meaning not or lack of, is changed to im. This is done for the sake of euphony. The n does not unite readily with the sound of m or p. So we do not say inmodest and inpartial, but immodest and impartial.

The prefix un, used with participles, means not; for example, unprepared means not prepared; unguarded means not guarded, etc.

The prefix un used with verbs, means to take off or to reverse; for example, uncover means to take off the cover; untwist means to reverse the process of the twisting.

The prefix un used with adjectives means not; for example, uncertain means not certain; uncommon means not common.

The prefix mis used with nouns or verbs, means wrong. For example, mistreatment means wrong treatment; to misspell means to spell wrong.

Add the prefix in to the nouns given in Monday's list; add the prefix in to the adjectives given in Tuesday's list; add the prefix im to the adjectives and nouns in Wednesday's lesson; add the prefix un to the participles and adjectives in Thursday's lesson; add the prefix un to the verbs in Friday's lesson, and add the prefix mis to the nouns and verbs in Saturday's lesson.

Monday

- Tolerance

- Frequency

- Competence

- Efficiency

- Coherence

Tuesday

- Convenient

- Expedient

- Famous

- Adequate

- Solvent

Wednesday

- Pertinent

- Morality

- Patience

- Moderate

- Pious

Thursday

- Balanced

- Biased

- Gracious

- Stable

- Solicited

Friday

- Burden

- Veil

- Fasten

- Screw

- Furl

Saturday

- Construe

- Apprehension

- Inform

- Guide

- Judge

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 28

Dear Comrade:

We are beginning with this lesson the study of the use of capitals and of punctuation. The use of capitals as well as punctuation has nothing to do with our spoken words, but both are very important in our written language.

There is nothing that will mark us as uneducated more quickly than bad spelling, faulty punctuation and the incorrect use of capitals.

The rules for the use of capitals may seem somewhat arbitrary. After an understanding of them, however, you will discover that they are not arbitrary, but are based upon a single principle. The word which is of the most importance, or which should receive the most emphasis is the word which is capitalized, as for example, the principal words in a title, the first words in a sentence, proper names, etc.

Study these rules carefully, note the use of the capitals in your reading and watch your written language carefully for a time. Soon the proper use of capitals will seem easy and most natural. In the meantime do not fail to keep up your study of words. Add at least one word to your vocabulary every day.

Did you ever consider how we think in pictures? Nearly every word that we use calls up a certain image or picture in our minds. The content of words has grown and developed as our ability to think has developed.

Take, for example, words like head or hand. Head originally referred to a portion of the body of a living thing; then it was used to refer to some part of an inanimate object which might resemble or call up a picture of an animal's head, for example, the head of a pin. Again, it was used to refer to some part of an inanimate thing which was associated with the head of a human being, as the head of the bed. Then, by the power of association, since the head was considered the most conspicuous and important part of the body, that which was most conspicuous and important was called the head, as the head of the army, the head of the nation.

Then, since the head was the seat of the brain and of the mental faculties, the head was often used instead of the brain or mental faculties. We speak of a clear head or a cool head. Thus we have a number of idiomatic expressions. We may speak of the head of the river; or the subject matter was divided under four heads; or again, the matter came to a head; he is head and ears in debt; we cannot make head against the opposition, etc.

This transfer of our ideas from the physical to the mental and spiritual marks vividly the growth of the language and the development of thought. Trace the words like hands, arm, foot, eye, tongue, in their use, first as physical then as mental or spiritual.

This will be the most interesting pastime and will enlarge the content of the words which you use.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

CAPITAL LETTERS

464. In our written speech we often display our lack of education by our use of capital letters and punctuation. We may understand the use of words and be able to speak fairly well, but if we do not understand the proper use of capitals and of punctuation marks, our written language readily betrays our ignorance.

465. There are a number of rules for the use of capitals which we must observe. Some of the writers in our magazines defy these rules of capitalization, in an effort to seem different from other people, perhaps. These rules for the use of capital letters, like all other rules, are not arbitrary rules laid down by any body of men, but are simply a statement of accepted usage among people. We should not feel that we should say this or that or we are violating a rule of grammar. We should feel rather that the majority of the people who speak and write good English do thus, and so, for this reason, I shall do it also.

This is simply obeying the standard of majority rule. If there is any good and sufficient reason why we feel this should not be a rule, we may be justified in breaking it and making a new rule. Many people feel that our spelling should be simplified and so they insist upon spelling certain words in a more simple way. They feel that they have good and sufficient reason for insisting upon this change and gradually if these reasons appeal to the majority as being good and sufficient reasons, then this simplified mode of spelling will become the accepted usage.

But there seems no good reason why any writer should scatter capital letters with a lavish hand throughout his writing. One feels as though a writer in so doing is expressing his desire to be different, in a very superficial manner. Let us be unique and individual in our thought. If this forces us to a different mode of living or of expression from the rest of the world, then we are justified in being different from the rest. We have thought and reason behind our action. This is far different from the attitude of one who poses as a radical and whose only protest is in the superficial external things. So let us learn and observe these rules for the use of capital letters.

RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS

466. Use a capital for the first word of every sentence.

When you begin a new sentence always begin that sentence with a capital letter. Each sentence is a statement of a complete thought and is independent of every other sentence. The use of the capital letter indicates this independence and calls attention to the fact that you are beginning a new thought.

467. Begin every line of poetry with a capital letter. Sometimes in poetry, the line is too long to be printed on a single line and must be carried over into another line; in this case, the first word of the second line does not begin with a capital letter.

468. Use a capital for every proper noun. This includes names of persons, countries, states, towns, cities, streets and geographical names, as the names of seas, lakes, mountains, rivers, etc.

469. The words North, South, East and West are capitalized when they are used to refer to geographical divisions. When these words simply refer to the points of the compass, they should not begin with a capital.

470. The pronoun I and the interjection O should always be capitals. Never write the pronoun I with a small i.

471. Every proper adjective should begin with a capital letter. Proper adjectives are adjectives derived from proper nouns. For example: the Marxian philosophy, the Darwinian theory, Indian money, Japanese labor, etc.

472. Always begin the names of the months and the days of the week with capital letters. For example: January, February, August, Monday, Tuesday, Friday, etc.

473. Use a capital letter for every name or title of the Deity. For example: God, Jehovah, Christ, Jesus, etc. It is also customary to capitalize all personal pronouns referring to God or Christ.

474. Begin with a capital letter names of all religious sects and political parties, also all adjectives derived from them. As for example: Christian Church, Methodism, Republican Party, Mohammedan, Socialist, etc.

475. Begin the names of all things spoken of as persons with a capital. In poetry or poetic prose we often speak of war, fame, death, hope, fancy, liberty, etc., as persons. Whenever these words are used in this way they should begin with a capital letter.

476. Use capital letters to begin important words in the title of a book or the subject of a composition. In titles the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs should begin with a capital, while the prepositions and conjunctions should begin with small letters. The articles, the, a and an are not capitalized unless they are the initial word in the title.

477. Use a capital to begin every direct quotation. The first word of an indirect quotation should begin with a small letter. A direct quotation is one which uses the exact words of the speaker. For example: He said, "I will come." This is a direct quotation, but He said that he would come, is an indirect quotation.

478. Use a capital to begin an important statement or to ask a question. For example: Resolved; That the United States should democratize war. The question is, Shall the people determine the question of war?

479. Use capitals for the chief items of any enumeration of particulars. For example;

The bill is as follows:

For Composition

$20.00

For Press Work

10.00

Paper

25.00

480. Begin the words indicating titles of offices and honor with a capital. For example, President Wilson, Doctor Smith, Professor Locke. When you use a title of this kind as a general term, that is, not indicating any particular person, do not use a capital. As for example: The society has had several presidents. But if you use the title to take the place of the person's name, for example: The President read the message to Congress, always use a capital.

481. Use capitals for the titles at the beginning of a letter or in written composition and in direct address. For example: My dear Father, My dear Mother, My dear Comrade, Dear Aunt Emma, Dear Friend, Dear Fellow Workers, etc. Also in conversation.

- Are you coming with me, Mother?

- What did the Doctor say, Comrade Smith?

When these words are not used in direct address, however, they should not be capitalized. For example, at the close of a letter you would write:

- Your sincere friend.

- Your loving brother.

Or in conversation:

- I asked my mother to go with me.

- My brother wrote me concerning the matter.

482. Begin the names of important buildings and localities with a capital. For example:

- Public Library, High School, The East Side, The Union Square, Central Market, etc.

These words used in a general sense, however, should not begin with a capital letter. For example:

- Our public libraries, our high schools, jails, prisons, post offices, etc.

483. The words state and territory, when they refer to particular divisions of the country, should be capitalized. For example:

- The State of New York, The Territory of Alaska, The French Government, etc.

State and government are also capitalized when they are used in place of proper names. For example:

- The State is based on exploitation.

- The Government has issued an edict of war.

We do not use a capital in such expressions as:

- Church and state, state affairs; they occupy a large territory, etc.

484. In directing letters or other matter for the mail, capitalize all words except prepositions, conjunctions or articles. These should be capitalized only when they begin a line.

Exercise 1

Draw a line under each word in the following that should be begun with a capital:

john joffre, lake michigan, day, thursday, friday, spring, august, december, germany, country, france, man, jones, smith, doctor, doctor george, professor moore, girl, mary, susan, methodist, mohammedan, church, party, republican party, socialist, company, national electric light company, river, mississippi river, the red river, essex county, state of illinois, iowa, railway, new york, new york central railway, the french revolution, novel, the sea wolf, poem, arrows in the gale, american.

Exercise 2

Notice carefully the following quotations and sentences and capitalize every word that should begin with a capital letter.

1. iron, the twin brother of fire, the first born out of the matrix of the earth, a witness everlasting to the glory of thy labor, am i, o man.

2. therefore i say unto you, banish fear from your hearts.

3. but ye, plebs, populists, people, rebels, mob, proletariat, live and abide forever.

4. and they came here from all parts of the earth, the syrians and the armenians, the thracians and the tartars, the jews, the greeks and the romans, the gauls and the angles and the huns and the hibernians, even from the deserts of the sands to the deserts of ice they came to listen unto his words.

5. marx and engels wrote the communist manifesto.

6. its closing words are; working men of all countries unite.

7. italy was the last of the great powers of europe to become involved in the war.

8. john randolph submitted an amendment to the constitution providing that the judges of the supreme court of the united states shall be removed by the president on the joint address of both houses of congress.

9. eugene v. debs spent six months in woodstock jail for exercising his right of free speech.

10. col. the abbreviation for colorado, is easily confused with cal. the abbreviation for california.

11. the people's college is a college maintained by the working class.

12. william jennings bryan won his first nomination for president of the united states by a very dramatic speech delivered in the national democratic convention.

13. marion craig wentworth, a socialist playwright, has written a play called "war brides."

14. the play closes with these words; a message to the emperor: i refuse to bear my child until you promise there shall be no more war.

15. olive schreiner's "woman and labor" is full of fascinating thought.

Exercise 3

Notice carefully the use of capitals in the following quotations, and determine the reason for the use of every capital:

As the nobles of England wrung their independence from King John, and as the tradesmen of France broke through the ring of privilege enclosing the Three Estates; so today the millions who serve society in arduous labor on the highways, and aloft on the scaffoldings, and by the sides of the whirring machines, are demanding that they, too, and their children, shall enjoy all of the blessings that justify and make beautiful this life.—Frank Walsh.

"The toad beneath the harrow knows

Exactly where the tooth-point goes.

The butterfly beside the road

Doth preach contentment to that toad."

"When I came here, it was said that the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company voted every man and woman in their employ without any regard to their being naturalized or not; and even their mules, it used to be remarked, were registered if they were fortunate enough to possess names." From a letter written by Mr. L. M. Bowers, Chairman of The Board of Directors of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, to the Secretary of Mr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., under date of May 13, 1913.

Master, I've done Thy bidding, wrought in Thy many lands.

Not by my sins wilt Thou judge me, but by the work of my hands.

Master, I've done Thy bidding, and the light is low in the west,

And the long, long shift is over ... Master, I've earned it—Rest.

—Robert Service.

It's O! to be a slave

Along with the barbarous Turk,

Where woman has never a soul to save,

If this is Christian work!

—Thos. Hood.

While there is a lower class, I am in it.

While there is a criminal element, I am of it.

While there is a soul in jail, I am not free.

—Eugene V. Debs.

When Adam delved and Eve span,

Who was then the gentleman?

The vilest deeds, like poison weeds,

Bloom well in prison-air;

It is only what is good in man

That wastes and withers there:

Pale Anguish keeps the heavy gate,

And the Warder is Despair.

—Oscar Wilde.

ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS

485. There are a number of words which we abbreviate or contract, in our every-day use. A contraction is a shortened form of the word used to save time or space and is made by omitting a letter or letters. The apostrophe is used to indicate the omission in a contracted word. As, for example:

- B'ld'g, B'l'v'd, M'f'g.

When the word is contracted in this way and the apostrophe is used, these contractions are not followed by the period but are used just as the completely written word would be used. There is no accepted list of these contractions. We devise them according to our need at the moment.

An abbreviation, however, is an authorized contraction of the word. It is the shortening of a term which is habitually used to save time and space. The apostrophe is not used and the abbreviation should be followed by a period. As for example:

- Bldg. Blvd. Mfg.

These abbreviations and contractions are very helpful to us in saving time and space but should not be used too frequently. Too many contractions or abbreviations make writing ridiculous. Take time to write out the majority of words. Only use abbreviations or contractions for certain accepted words. Avoid an excessive use of abbreviations.

COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS

486. We quite often abbreviate the names of the months, especially those which have long names. Short names like March, April, May, June and July, should never be abbreviated. For the other months we use in correspondence the abbreviations, Jan., Feb., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec. Days of the week are also sometimes abbreviated as follows: Sun., Mon., Tues., Wed., Thur., Fri., Sat. Do not use these abbreviations too often. Spell out the names of the months and of the days of the week except in lists of dates or something that calls for abbreviations to save time or space.

Mr., Mrs., Messrs., Jr., Sr., are never spelled out, but are always written in the abbreviated form. You will often find Doctor and Professor abbreviated to Dr., Prof. This is permissible but it is always good form to write them out in full.

487. We have abbreviated forms for a number of names; as for example: Geo., Chas., Thos., Wm., etc. But it is always much better to write these names out in full: George, Charles, Thomas, William, etc.

Remember that nicknames are not abbreviations and do not require a period after them. Jim, Charley, Tom, and Bill are not abbreviations but nicknames.

In correspondence or in any circumstance that demands the saving of time or space, we abbreviate the names of states and territories, as follows:

- Alabama, Ala.

- Arizona, Ariz.

- Arkansas, Ark.

- California, Cal.

- Colorado, Colo.

- Connecticut, Conn.

- Delaware, Del.

- District of Columbia, D. C.

- Florida, Fla.

- Georgia, Ga.

- Idaho, Ida.

- Illinois, Ill.

- Indiana, Ind.

- Iowa, Ia.

- Kansas, Kan.

- Kentucky, Ky.

- Louisiana, La.

- Maine, Me.

- Maryland, Md.

- Massachusetts, Mass.

- Michigan, Mich.

- Minnesota, Minn.

- Mississippi, Miss.

- Missouri, Mo.

- Montana, Mont.

- Nebraska, Neb.

- Nevada, Nev.

- New Hampshire, N. H.

- New Jersey, N. J.

- New Mexico, N. M.

- New York, N. Y.

- North Carolina, N. C.

- North Dakota, N. D.

- Ohio, O.

- Oklahoma, Okla.

- Oregon, Ore.

- Pennsylvania, Pa. or Penna.

- Rhode Island, R. I.

- South Carolina, S. C.

- South Dakota, S. D.

- Tennessee, Tenn.

- Texas, Tex.

- Vermont, Vt.

- Virginia, Va.

- Washington, Wash.

- West Virginia, W. Va.

- Wisconsin, Wis.

- Wyoming, Wyo.

488. Use a. m. and p. m. after dates in lists of dates or schedules of trains or for any similar purpose, but in the text of a letter or manuscript it is better to write them out in full. As for example, do not say:

- I will arrive tomorrow a. m., or, You may call about eight p. m.

Say rather:

- I will arrive tomorrow morning. You may call at eight o'clock this evening.

The letters a. m. are the abbreviation for ante meridiem, Latin for before noon; and p. m. for post meridiem, meaning afternoon.

489. Two consecutive years may be written 1914-15, but use 1915 rather than '15. In the heading of letters it is better to write the date out in full, as, May 28, 1915, instead of 5-28-15.

In the back of your dictionary you will find a complete list of accepted abbreviations used in writing and printing. The list that follows contains abbreviations most commonly used, especially in business correspondence:

- @ for at

- acct. for account

- agt. for agent

- amt. for amount

- ans. for answer

- asst. for assistant

- atty. for attorney

- av. for average

- bal. for balance

- bbl. for barrel

- bdl. for bundle

- bro. for brother

- bros. for brothers

- blk. for black

- bls. for bales

- bu. or bush. for bushels

- Co. for company

- chgd. for charged

- C. O. D. for "cash on delivery"

- cr. creditor

- cts. cents

- cwt. for hundred weight

- cu. for cubic

- do. for the same

- dr. for debtor

- doz. for dozen

- ea. for "each"

- et al. for "and others"

- e. g. for example

- etc. for "and so forth"

- ft. for foot or feet

- frt. freight

- f. o. b. "free on board"

- gal. gallon

- guar. for guaranty

- hdkfs. for handkerchiefs

- h. p. horse power

- in. for inches

- ins. for insurance

- inst. for this month

- i. e. for "that is"

- Jr. for junior

- lb. for pound

- memo. for memorandum

- Mon. for Monday

- mo. for month

- mos. for months

- mdse. for merchandise

- mfg. for manufacturing

- Mss. for manuscript

- no. for number

- N. B. for take notice

- O. K. for "all correct"

- oz. for ounce

- % for per cent

- pp. pages

- pr. for pair

- pt. for pint

- pk. for peck

- prox. for next month

- qt. for quart

- recd. for received

- sec. for second

- Sec. for secretary

- Sr. for senior

- Supt. for superintendent

- ult. for last month

- via by way of

- viz. namely

- vol. for volume

- wt. for weight

- yd. for yard

- yds. for yards

- yr. for year

Exercise 4

Write the proper abbreviations for the following words:

- Building

- Charles

- Boulevard

- Tuesday

- Arkansas

- Mississippi

- Foot

- Virginia

- Georgia

- Senior

- By way of

- Per cent

- Charged

- Avenue

- October

- Delaware

- Professor

- Thursday

- Colorado

- Kansas

- Handkerchiefs

- January

- Secretary

- Superintendent

- Received

- That is

- Free on board

- Monday

- Oklahoma

- July

- Thomas

- California

- Company

- Account

- Friday

- Merchandise

- Number

- All correct

- Cash on delivery

- And so forth

- Colonel

- Maine

- August

- William

- Missouri

- Brothers

- Amount

- Wyoming

SPELLING

LESSON 28

There is no way to learn to spell except by constant application. Watch in your reading the spelling of all words. Whenever you wish to add a certain word to your vocabulary, master immediately the spelling as well as the meaning of that word. Keep your dictionary handy; use it constantly in the study of your lessons. Do not guess at the spelling of the word. You are not likely to forget quickly the spelling of any word which you have taken the trouble to look up.

Read your examinations over carefully before sending them in, watching closely for any error in spelling and in punctuation. When your papers are graded and returned you, make a list of all the words which are misspelled and master then and there the spelling of these words. Do not be guilty of the same error twice. Remember that correct spelling is a mark of intelligence and scholarship and that nothing will so detract from the influence of your written work as incorrect spelling.

While there is always a certain word which more aptly expresses our meaning than any other, we can usually find two or more words which express practically the same meaning.

Words which have nearly the same meaning are called synonyms.

It is always an interesting exercise and will add greatly to your vocabulary to select a certain paragraph and go through it replacing certain words with other words which have practically the same meaning. It is this mastery of synonyms which gives the great writers and orators their power. They do not use the same word over and over again until our ears have grown weary of it. With their wonderful mastery of language they are never at a loss for words in which to re-clothe their meaning.

For the first three days of this week's work in spelling we have words and their synonyms. For the words given in the lessons for the last three days, look up in your dictionary a suitable synonym.

Monday

- Abundant

- Plenty

- Precarious

- Uncertain

- Behavior

- Conduct

Tuesday

- Abuse

- Invective

- Hateful

- Odious

- Praise

- Applause

Wednesday

- Sufficient

- Enough

- Refuge

- Asylum

- Achieve

- Attain

Thursday

- Insolent

- Revenge

- Curb

- Repudiate

- Censure

- Regret

Friday

- Prosperity

- Subterfuge

- Event

- Observe

- Portion

- Destroy

Saturday

- Talkative

- Indolent

- Profit

- Volunteer

- Cordial

- Enormous

There are a number of nouns very similar in form, yet different in meaning, which we very often use incorrectly.

Cross out in these sentences the incorrect word. Look them up in the dictionary and be sure of the exact meaning:

- Roger's essay—assay won him praise.

- The assay—essay indicated the quantity of gold in the metal.

- The completion—completeness of the course entitled me to a Diploma.

- The completion—completeness of the arrangements fills us with hope of success.

- Confidants—confidence often betray us.

- The business world is built upon confidants—confidence.

- The conscience—consciousness of a religious person is very sensitive.

- The class struggle develops class conscience—consciousness.

- The strikers listened to unwise counsel—council.

- The council—counsel refused the franchise.

- You knew he was a cultured—cultivated man, the moment you met him.

- It is a highly cultured—cultivated plant.

- I asked her for the recipe—receipt for making cake.

- He gave her a receipt—recipe for the money.

- Emigration—-immigration has reduced the population of Servia.

- Emigration—immigration is flooding the United States with cheap labor.

- Edison's discovery—invention of the storage battery was a momentous event.

- The discovery—invention of gold in Alaska attracted the attention of the world.

- The state placed a limitation—limit upon the sale of liquor within certain limits—limitations.

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 29

Dear Comrade:

The spirit of self-help is the root of all genuine growth in any man or woman. It is the things which we do for ourselves in any line of work that count the most for us. The things which come to us without any effort on our part do not stay with us very long nor do us much good while we have them.

Sometimes we feel discouraged because we have not had the opportunity to attend school as much as we would like. There is no gainsaying but that this is a tremendous handicap and yet, after all, it is not an insurmountable obstacle. It is much better to have the appetite without the food than to have the food without the appetite. There is always a chance of securing the food if we want it bad enough and will struggle hard enough. So in the matter of an education. Many a man who has never seen the inside of a college is better educated than those who have been through college.

These men have really wanted knowledge, have sought it early and late, and have found knowledge; and because they were in the work-a-day world, in constant contact with their fellow-men, they were able to relate the knowledge which they gained out of books to the world in which they lived and this is true education. This is, also, what many college-bred people lack. A student is half made as soon as he seeks knowledge for its own sake. If you are striving to learn, not to make grades or to pass examinations or to secure a degree, but simply for the sake of knowing things, then indeed you are on the way to become really educated.

Stimulate within yourself a desire for knowledge, observe the things about you, add to your store of information daily; read a good book each day, even if you have time to read only a page or two, and you will be surprised at the result in your life.

Take, for example, our spelling. Why should we continually misspell the words which we use every day and which we see every day on a printed page. If we are wide-awake and have our eyes open, we can soon learn to spell correctly all these common words, at least. Make a list this week of fifty things with which you come in contact in your daily work, then look these words up in your dictionary and see how many of them you have misspelled. There is no reason why we should not be learning constantly and the more we observe, the more acute becomes our power of observation.

Let us determine more than ever to feel that we are part of the great world movement, that we belong in the ranks of those who have caught the vision of what the world might be, and that we belong to that glorious army of those who are fighting for the dream; so we may take courage; so we may find joy in the struggle, bitter as it may be, and so we may do our part in the fight.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

PUNCTUATION

490. Marks of punctuation are very important in our written language. They take the place of the gesture and pause and inflection and intonation of the voice, by which we make our meaning clear in vocal speech. So the marks of punctuation do not become mere mechanical devices. They are marks full of meaning and necessary to express our thought.

Punctuation is a word derived from the Latin word punctum which means a point. We have other words from the same derivation, as puncture, etc.

Punctuation is the art of pointing off our written language so as to make its meaning clear.

Some very amusing errors have occurred because of the misplacing or the omission of punctuation marks. It is said, that a toast was one time given at a public dinner; "Woman! without her, man would be a savage." The next day it appeared in print; "Woman, without her man, would be a savage." You can readily see that the punctuation in this instance made a very great difference in the meaning of the sentence.

491. In conversation, the tone of the voice which we use, has a great effect upon our meaning, for example I might say, The International failed, in such a tone of voice, that it would express despair and chagrin, and indicate that the International was a thing of the past; or I might say, The International failed, with such an inflection, that you would understand that even the suggestion was to be treated with contempt, that the International was still powerful and its triumph inevitable. And in writing, the only way we have of expressing these shades of meaning is by means of punctuation marks.

So these marks of punctuation are not thrown upon a page haphazardly, or put there simply for decoration; they have a meaning and a very great meaning. Those who use short, crisp sentences have less need for punctuation marks than those who use longer and more involved sentences. When we have learned to express ourselves directly and simply, we will naturally use fewer marks of punctuation.

492. You will find that, in writing in connection with business, there is much less need of punctuation than in literary and philosophical writings. Business writing is usually direct and simple in style. Its purpose is to state facts. The literary and philosophical writing, however, expresses more involved ideas and emotions, and in these, the punctuation is exceedingly important.

493. One of the great purposes served by punctuation is to indicate a pause or break in the thought. A very good rule to go by in punctuating is to repeat the sentence aloud, and whenever you pause for breath or because of a break in the thought, it is a pretty safe indication that in that place, you should have a punctuation mark.

494. The following are the chief marks of punctuation:

1.

The Comma

,

2.

The Semi-colon

;

3.

The Colon

:

4.

The Period

.

5.

The Interrogation Point

?

6.

The Exclamation Point

!

7.

The Dash

—

8.

The Parenthesis

( )

9.

The Bracket

[ ]

10.

The Quotation Marks

" "

11.

The Apostrophe

'

12.

The Hyphen

-

THE COMMA

495. The comma is the mark used to indicate a slight break in the thought.

There are a number of rules given for the use of commas. These rules, like the rules for the use of capitals, you cannot commit to memory; but, after repeated practice in your own writing and paying attention to your reading, you will gradually develop an instinctive sense of the use of the comma. Select some book which you are reading and go through it, noticing especially the use of the commas. See if you can determine the reason which prompted the author to place his commas where he did. Notice, also, what effect the placing or the omission of the comma would have upon the meaning of the sentence.

496. The Comma indicates the slightest degree of separation between the parts of a sentence.

RULE 1.

497. Words, phrases and clauses, forming a series and used in the same construction, should be separated from each other by commas when the conjunctions are omitted.

WORDS WHICH FORM A SERIES

498. The words which form a series, separated by a comma may be either nouns, adjectives, adverbs or verbs. The comma is only used where the conjunction is omitted. Note carefully the following sentences:

- Love, laughter and happiness are the right of every child.

- He visited every city, town and village.

- The working class has been meek, humble, docile and gullible.

- All the crushed, tortured, strangled, maimed and murdered ideals of the ages shall become an everlasting reality.

- He struggled patiently, faithfully and fearlessly for the cause.

- If labor thinks, dares, rebels, fights, it will be victorious.

PHRASES WHICH FORM SERIES

499. Phrases which are used in the same construction and form a series are separated by commas where the conjunction is omitted. For example:

- Day after day, year after year, century after century, the class struggle has proceeded.

- The struggle in the mines, in the fields, in the factories and in the shops, will go on until labor receives the product of its toil.

CLAUSES USED IN A SERIES

500. Sometimes clauses are used without the co-ordinate conjunction and a comma is used to indicate the omission. For example:

- Do not moan, do not submit, do not kneel, do not pray, do not wait.

- Speak as you mean, do as you profess, perform what you promise.

RULE 2.

501. Explanatory and introductory expressions, words in direct address, parenthetical words and phrases, are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

Note carefully the following examples:

- Jaures, the great French Socialist, was the first martyr to peace.

- War having been declared, the troops were mobilized.

- No, I cannot believe you.

- Mr. Chairman, I desire to speak to the convention.

- We can, of course, give you the information you desire.

RULE 3.

502. Words, phrases or clauses written in the sentence out of their natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

These words, phrases and clauses are often written at the beginning of the sentences or at the end of the sentences, or in some place out of their natural order, for the sake of emphasis, instead of with the words they modify.

Notice in the following sentences how these words, phrases and clauses are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. Rewrite these sentences, placing these words, phrases and clauses in their natural order and omit the commas.

- Longingly and anxiously, he waited.

- With this exception, the figures are correct.

- The music, sweet and dreamy, floated upon the air.

- The waves came rolling in, white with foam.

- To deceive the men, he resorted to shameful tricks.

- Before anyone else could speak, he was on his feet.

RULE 4.

503. Co-ordinate clauses, when closely related in meaning are separated by commas. The comma should precede the co-ordinate conjunction. For example:

- I have not intended to detain you, but the matter required explanation.

RULE 5.

504. The omission of the verb in a sentence or a clause should be indicated by a comma. Sometimes in writing for effect or to give emphasis we omit the verb in the sentence; at other times we omit the verb when the same verb occurs in a series of brief sentences, and its continued use would mean a tiresome repetition. For example:

- Reading maketh a full man; conference, a ready man; writing, an exact man.

Here the verb is omitted in the last two clauses and the omission is indicated by the use of the comma.

RULE 6.

505. Short, direct quotations should be preceded by a comma. For example:

- Their slogan is, "An injury to one is the concern of all."

- Ferrer's last words were, "Long live the modern school."

RULE 7.

506. Separate the figures in large numbers into groups of three figures each by the use of commas. For example:

- The population of the United States has now reached 100,000,000.

- According to the census of 1900, there are 29,073,233 people engaged in gainful occupations in the United States.

Exercise 1

Supply commas in the following sentences in the proper places:

1. Food clothes and shelter are the fundamental needs of life.

2. We believe in education free from theocracy aristocracy or plutocracy.

3. Man is the master of nature of law of life.

4. We shall struggle rebel arise and claim all being for our own.

5. Sickness and suffering sorrow and despair crime and war are the fruits of poverty.

6. You should seek after knowledge steadily faithfully and perseveringly.

7. The most inspiring powerful and impressive oratory is the voice of the disinherited.

8. Through your united almighty strength order shall become equity law shall become liberty duty shall become love and religion shall become truth.

9. First let us consider the main question.

10. Mr. President I rise to a point of order.

11. We the workers of the world must unite.

12. The class struggle being a fact why should we hesitate to join our class?

13. You have not it seems understood the issue.

14. Of all our needs education is the greatest.

15. Regularly and monotonously the machine whirs to and fro.

16. Before any one can take special training he must have a good knowledge of English.

17. We plead for education universal and free.

18. The first ingredient in conversation is truth the next good sense the third good humor and the fourth wit.

19. The slogan of the People's College is The education of the workers by the workers.

20. According to the last census the enrollment of the schools of the United States is 18521002.

21. There are 4611000 in the first grade and 155000 in the last year of high school.

THE SEMI-COLON

507. The semi-colon indicates a break more complete than that of the comma. The period indicates a complete break in the thought. So the comma indicates a slight break, the semi-colon a greater break in the thought, and the period, the completion of the thought.

RULES FOR THE USE OF THE SEMI-COLON

508. The semi-colon is often used instead of the comma where a longer pause is desired or we wish to indicate a greater break in the thought. For example:

"The wind is chill;

But let it whistle as it will,

We'll keep our Christmas merry still."

509. As a rule we separate by semi-colons those parts of the sentences that are already punctuated by commas. For example:

- After considerable delay, he came back to look for his friends; but, though he looked diligently, he could not find them.

510. The semi-colon is used to separate closely connected simple sentences when the conjunction is omitted. The continual repetition of the conjunction would become very tiresome and detract from the forcefulness of our sentences. So instead of continually repeating the conjunction we separate these simple sentences by semi-colons. For example:

Through the industrial revolution, the face of the earth is making over even as to its physical forms; political boundaries are wiped out and moved about as if they were indeed only lines on a paper map; population is hurriedly gathered into cities from the ends of the earth; habits of living are altered with startling abruptness; the search for the truths of nature is infinitely stimulated; and the application of these truths to life is made not only practicable, but commercially necessary.

511. The semi-colon should be used after each item in a series of specific statements. For example:

- We quote you the following prices: Grade No. 1, $1.00; Grade No. 2, $2.90; poorer grades not in demand.

RULES FOR THE USE OF THE COLON

512. The colon is not used as much as it formerly was. The comma and the semi-colon and the period are now used in most of the places where older writers used the colon.

One authority in English says that, "in strict logic the colon is to the sentence in which it is used what the mark of equality is in mathematics."

513. The colon is used before a formal list of items. For example:

- Economics has three important divisions: production, distribution, consumption.

514. The colon is used after a salutation at the beginning of a letter. For example: Dear Sir: Gentlemen: Comrades:

In such cases the dash is also frequently used with the colon. For example: My dear Sir:— Gentlemen:— Comrades:—

515. The colon is more often used instead of the semi-colon after such expressions as, thus: as follows: the following: for example: etc.

The colon is also used to separate a series of sentences which are explanatory of the main clause. For example:

- The People's College has two great aims: the first is to bring education within the reach of every worker; the second is to teach from the viewpoint of the working class.

- We were advised to proceed thus: first, to be systematic in our work; second, to concentrate; third, to go slowly and surely; and last of all, to think for ourselves.

RULES FOR THE USE OF THE PERIOD

516. The period is a mark of punctuation that denotes the completion of a sentence.

517. The period is used at the close of all assertive and imperative sentences. For example:

- There is talk of peace but preparation for war.

- Claim your own at any hazard.

518. The period is used after all initials and all abbreviations, as for example: E. V. Debs; T. P. O'Connor; Mr., Dr., Co., Mass., N. Y., C. O. D., F. O. B., U. S. A., etc.

519. The period is used to separate whole numbers and decimal numbers. For example: 3.1416 9.342.

A period is used for the decimal point between dollars and cents; as: $4.50, $2.25, $16.54, $35926.72.

It is also used to separate the various denominations of sterling money, as: £14. 15s. 6d.

520. The period is used after letters used as numerals or after figures used to number paragraphs, notes, remarks, questions or any list of particulars. For example:

The letters which are used to denote sub-heads in the enumeration of rules as a. b. c., etc., also the numerals and letters marking sections or sub-sections in chapters, as Chapter 8. Paragraph 1. Rule 1. Page 4. Volume 2. Paragraph 3. P. 16.

521. The period is also used after headings and titles, after dates and signatures to letters and other documents; also at the close of the address at the beginning of a letter, and of the name at the close of the letter; also after the last item in the direction of an envelope or package.

Exercise 2

In the following quotations place the commas, semi-colons, colons and periods in their proper places, and be able to give a reason for what you do:

The man who stabs his brother to death is a criminal and is hanged the general who under a flag slays a regiment is a hero and is decorated with a cross

The most thrilling oratory the most powerful and impressive eloquence is the voice of the disinherited the oppressed the suffering and the submerged it is the voice of poverty and misery of wretchedness and despair it is the voice of humanity crying to the infinite it is the voice that resounds throughout the earth and reaches heaven it is the voice that wakens the conscience of the race and proclaims the truths that fill the world with life liberty and love

The number of lives lost in the great wars of the world have been as follows Napoleonic wars 1900000 our Civil War 656000 Franco-German War 290000 Boer War 90898 Russo-Japanese 555900 and in the present world-war untold millions

Walt Whitman who represents individualism at its best writes "I sing the song of myself" To this the Socialist replies "Inasmuch as my redemption is bound up in that of my class I sing the song of my class"

We believe with John Ruskin "whether there be one God or three no God or ten thousand children should be fed and their bodies should be kept clean"

My dear Mr Smith Your letter of the 15th has been received

Through the dreams of all the ages rings the voice of labor beginning as a murmur growing in volume and grandeur as it rolls round the world And this is the burden of its message By the sweat of no other's brow shalt thou eat bread

The sun of the new world is rising it is rising out of the solidarity of the working class Its rays of light are bursting through the dark horizon which ignorance and deceit have so long riveted upon us It is lighting up the faces of a new order of men and women supermen and women men and women not discouraged by defeat god-like men and women who have found the secret springs of life and are already drinking deep and glorious draughts men and women who are standing erect and whose joined hands encircle the world men and women who see the world's wretchedness and the world's poverty and are ready to throw away their lives with a song on their lips that such things shall not be

Exercise 3

Note the punctuation in the following poem and determine for yourself, in accordance with the rules we have studied, why the commas, semi-colons, colons and periods are used as they are:

JOHN BROWN

States are not great

Except as man may make them;

Men are not great except they do and dare.

But States, like men,

Have destinies that take them—

That bear them on, not knowing why or where.

The why repels

The philosophic searcher—

The why and where all questionings defy,

Until we find,

Far back in youthful nurture,

Prophetic facts that constitute the why.

All merit comes

From braving the unequal;

All glory comes from daring to begin.

Fame loves the State

That, reckless of the sequel,

Fights long and well, whether it lose or win.

And there is one

Whose faith, whose fight, whose failing,

Fame shall placard upon the walls of time.

He dared begin—

Despite the unavailing,

He dared begin, when failure was a crime.

When over Africa

Some future cycle

Shall sweep the lake-gemmed uplands with its surge;

When, as with trumpet

Of Archangel Michael,

Culture shall bid a colored race emerge;

From boulevards

O'erlooking both Nyanzas,

The statured bronze shall glitter in the sun,

With rugged lettering:

"JOHN BROWN OF KANSAS:

HE DARED BEGIN;

HE LOST,

BUT, LOSING, WON."

—Eugene Ware.

SPELLING

LESSON 29

Last week we studied words which had the same, or nearly the same, meaning. There is always a slight distinction in the meaning of words, but some of them are so nearly the same that it makes very little difference which word we use. Some writers, however, are very careful and spend a great deal of time in the selection of just the right word to express their meaning.

Robert Louis Stevenson once said a good writer would wait half a day in order to secure the best word to convey a certain idea.

A very amusing story is told of Thomas Carlyle, who was very careful to use words expressing just the shade of meaning which he desired to express. He had a habit of writing in a note book these words as they occurred to him, so he would have them for ready reference and use. One day he had searched all day for a certain word which eluded him. Suddenly in the middle of the night he wakened with the word flashing in his mind. He wanted to write it down immediately lest he should forget it in the morning, but it was cold and he dreaded getting up in the cold to secure his note book so he nudged Jeanie, his wife, and said: "Jeanie, Jeanie, get up! I have thought of a good word, and I want you to write it down." Now it was equally cold for Jeanie, so Jeanie nudged Thomas and said: "Thomas, Thomas, get up yourself. I have thought of a bad one!"

Nevertheless, it is a good idea when these good words occur to you to write them down. Possibly to save trouble, you had better write them for yourself!

But in addition to words which have the same meaning, or almost the same meaning, there are also words which express just the opposite meaning, and it is well for us to be master of these words also.

These words which express opposite meaning are called antonyms. Words and their antonyms are given in this week's spelling lesson in the words for the first three days' study. For the last three days, words only are given. Look these words up in your dictionary and determine upon the most suitable antonyms.

Monday

- Legal

- Illegal

- Artificial

- Natural

- Assert

- Deny

Tuesday

- Civilized

- Barbarous

- Courage

- Cowardice

- Active

- Passive

Wednesday

- Initial

- Final

- Temporary

- Permanent

- History

- Legend

Thursday

- Addition

- Cleverness

- Assured

- Genuine

- Acquit

- Increase

Friday

- Affection

- Composure

- Enlarge

- Anxious

- Prompt

- Discord

Saturday

- Succeed

- Describe

- Winning

- Wasteful

- Superficial

- Grieve

Write the proper word in the following blanks:

PATIENTS or PATIENCE

- The Doctor has many.......

- We have no......with stupidity.

NEGLIGENCE or NEGLECT

- The accident was due to the......of the employer.

- He has been guilty of......of his family for he was injured by the criminal......of the Railroad Company.

OBSERVANCE or OBSERVATION

- The troops were concealed from.......

- Trade Unions never fail in the......of Labor Day.

- A man's own......will guide him in the......of all good customs.

RELATIVES or RELATIONS

- Taft and Roosevelt did not always have pleasant......with each other.

- He has gone to visit his.......

- We do not always have pleasant......with our.......

SECTS or SEX

- There are many religious.......

- Woman is refused the ballot because of her.......

STATUE or STATUTE

- The law was placed upon the......books.

- The world will sometime erect a......to the man of the people.

Do not fear to be thought a "high-brow" if you use these words in your every day speech. The very people who may laugh are in their hearts admiring you, and are, in all probability, envious. The man who has accused another of being a "high-brow" has by that very act, admitted his own inferiority.

Demand the best for yourself in words, as in everything else.

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 30

Dear Comrade:

With this lesson we are finishing this course in Plain English. We have covered a great deal of ground and have studied the essentials of grammar. We have tried, as far as possible, to avoid the stupid conning of rules or learning by rote. We have attempted at least to make the reason and necessity for every rule apparent before the rule was stated.

We have also tried to weave into the lessons something of the romance of language, for language is a romance; in its growth is written the epic of the race. Our words portray the struggle of man from savage to sage. So, feeble as our efforts in this regard may have been, we trust that you have enjoyed and profited by this course and have caught a new vision of life. Most of us are forced so inexorably into the bitter struggle for existence that we have little time or opportunity to catch much of the beauty of life. That is the curse of a society that dooms its citizens to weary, toil-burdened lives, robbed of the joy and beauty of living.

Yet, if we know how to read we can always have access to books and through them we can escape the sordidness and ugliness of the life in which we are compelled to live and spend at least a little time each day in the company of great souls who speak to us from the printed page. The quotations in these lessons have been taken from these great writers.

Will you not pursue the acquaintanceship and become real friends with these men and women? Above all things they will bring you into the atmosphere of liberty and of freedom. For throughout all the pain of the struggle of the past and of the present, there has been the fight of man for freedom. We have gained the mastery over nature. Wild animals, which were a constant menace to savage man, have been destroyed. We have been freed from fear and superstition by the discovery of the laws of nature. With the invention of the machine, man has increased his ability to provide the essentials of life,—food, clothing and shelter—a thousandfold. The past has seen revolution after revolution in the struggle for mastery.

We now stand on the threshold of another great revolution when man shall master the machines which he has invented and shall cease serving them and make them serve him. His increased facilities for food-getting and shelter-getting shall be made to serve all mankind. We have a part to play in that great revolution.

Whatever you may have gained from the study of this course; what increased facility of understanding or of expression may have come to you; may it be not only for the service of yourself but also for the service of the revolution that shall bring the worker into his own.

Yours for Education,

THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

THE ETERNAL WHY

522. There is no more important mark of punctuation than the Interrogation Point. Asking questions is the foundation and beginning of all wisdom. Progress is based upon the eternal Why. If men had always been satisfied with the knowledge of their age and had not continually asked questions which they set themselves to answer, we would still be living in caves or dwelling in trees.

The natural child, that is, the child whose will has not been broken, is an animated Interrogation Point. He is full of questions. He wants to know why this and why that. This is a most natural trait and one that should not be destroyed. It may sadly interfere sometimes with the things that we wish to do, to stop and answer the child's questions as to why cats have tails or who made the world and what did he stand on while he was doing it; but it is decidedly important that some one should answer these questions which the child asks, in a manner to satisfy its present craving for knowledge. The fact that this trait has been quenched in so many children by the impatient grown-ups explains their stupidity in later years. Encourage every child to ask questions. Encourage it also to be persistent until it finds somewhere the answer to its questions.

Cultivate also this trait yourself. Do not accept a thing simply because some one says it is so. Insist upon knowing for yourself. This is the secret of progress, that we should think for ourselves, investigate for ourselves and not fear to face the facts of life or to express our own ideas. The wise man does not accept a thing because it is old nor does he reject it because it is new. He inquires, demands, reasons and satisfies himself as to the merit of the question. So the Interrogation Point in the written language of man has a tremendous meaning. It stands for the open and inquiring mind; for the courage that dares question all things and seek the truth.

THE INTERROGATION POINT

523. An Interrogation Point should be placed after every direct question.

A direct question is one that can be answered. An indirect question is one that cannot be answered. If I say, Why do you not study?, I am asking a direct question to which you can give an answer; but if I say, I wonder why you do not study, I have asked an indirect question which does not require a direct answer.

- Why do you not go? (Direct)

- He asked why you did not go. (Indirect)

524. When an interrogative clause is repeated in the body of another sentence, use the interrogation point after the clause, and begin the clause with a capital letter. For example:

- The question, Shall we be involved in war?, should be settled by the people.

THE EXCLAMATION POINT

525. The exclamation point should be placed after words, phrases or sentences that express strong emotion. For example:

- Oh! When shall peace reign again?

- Alas! I am undone!

- To the firing line! the battle rages!

526. Ordinarily the exclamation point is placed immediately after the interjection or word used as an interjection, but frequently when the strong emotion continues throughout the expression, the exclamation point is placed at the close of the sentence instead of after the interjection, even though the interjection comes first in the sentence. For example:

- On, Comrades, on!

- Charge, Chester, charge!

THE DASH

527. The dash is a much abused punctuation mark. A great many writers who are not familiar with the rules of punctuation use a dash whenever they feel the need of some sort of a punctuation mark. Their rule seems to be, "whenever you pause make a dash." Punctuation marks indicate pauses but a dash should not be used upon every occasion. The dash should not be used as a substitute for the comma, semi-colon, colon, etc. In reality, the dash should be used only when these marks cannot be correctly used.

528. The chief use of the dash is to indicate a sudden break in the thought or a sudden change in the construction of the sentence. For example:

- In the next place—but I cannot discuss the matter further under the circumstances.

529. The dash is frequently used to set a parenthetical expression off from the rest of the sentence when it has not as close connection with the sentence as would be indicated by commas. As for example:

- The contention may be true—although I do not believe it—that this sort of training is necessary.

530. The dash is also used in place of commas to denote a longer or more expressive pause. For example:

- The man sank—then rose—then sank again.

531. The dash is often used after an enumeration of several items as a summing up. For example:

- Production, distribution, consumption—all are a part of economics.

532. A dash is often used when a word or phrase is repeated for emphasis. For example:

- Is there universal education—education for every child beneath the flag? It is not for the masses of the children—not for the children of the masses.

533. If the parenthetical statements within dashes require punctuation marks, this mark should be placed before the second dash. For example:

- War for defense—and was there ever a war that was not for defense?—was permitted by the International.

- This sight—what a wonderful sight it was!—greeted our eyes with the dawn.

534. The dash is also used to indicate the omission of a word, especially such words as as, namely, viz., etc. For example:

- Society is divided into two classes—the exploited and the exploiting classes.

535. After a quotation, use the dash before the name of the author. For example:

- Life only avails, not the having lived.—Emerson.

536. The dash is used to mark the omission of letters or figures. For example:

- It happened in the city of M—.

- It was in the year 18—.

PARENTHESIS

537. In our study of the comma and the dash we have found that parenthetical statements are set off from the rest of the sentence sometimes by a comma and sometimes by a dash. When the connection with the rest of the sentence is close, and yet the words are thrown in in a parenthetical way, commas are used to separate the parenthetical statement from the rest of the sentence.

538. When the connection is not quite so close, the dash is used instead of the comma to indicate the fact that this statement is thrown in by way of explanation or additional statement. But when we use explanatory words or parenthetical statements that have little or no connection with the rest of the sentence, these phrases or clauses are separated from the rest of the sentences by the parenthesis.

539. GENERAL RULE:—Marks of parenthesis are used to set off expressions that have no vital connection with the rest of the sentence. For example:

- Ignorance (and why should we hesitate to acknowledge it?) keeps us enslaved.

- Education (and this is a point that needs continual emphasis) is the foundation of all progress.

THE PUNCTUATION OF THE PARENTHESIS

540. If the parenthetical statement asks a question or voices an exclamation, it should be followed by the interrogation point or the exclamation point, within the parenthesis. For example:

- We are all of us (who can deny it?) partial to our own failings.

- The lecturer (and what a marvelous orator he is!) held the audience spellbound for hours.

OTHER USES OF THE PARENTHESIS

541. An Interrogation Point is oftentimes placed within a parenthesis in the body of a sentence to express doubt or uncertainty as to the accuracy of our statement. For example:

- In 1858 (?) this great movement was started.

- John (?) Smith was the next witness.

542. The parenthesis is used to include numerals or letters in the enumeration of particulars. For example:

- Economics deals with (1) production, (2) distribution, (3) consumption.

- There are three sub-heads; (a) grammar, (b) rhetoric, (c) composition.

543. Marks of parenthesis are used to inclose an amount or number written in figures when it is also written in words, as:

- We will need forty (40) machines in addition to those we now have.

- Enclosed find Forty Dollars ($40.00) to apply on account.

THE BRACKET

544. The bracket [ ] indicates that the word or words included in the bracket are not in the original discourse.

545. The bracket is generally used by editors in supplying missing words, dates and the like, and for corrections, additions and explanations. For example:

- This rule usually applies though there are some exceptions. [See Note 3, Rule 1, Page 67].

546. All interpretations, notes, corrections and explanations, which introduce words or phrases not used by the author himself, should be enclosed in brackets.

547. Brackets are also used for a parenthesis within a parenthesis. If we wish to introduce a parenthetical statement within a parenthetical statement this should be enclosed in a bracket. For example:

- He admits that this fact (the same fact which the previous witness [Mr. James E. Smith] had denied) was only partially true.

QUOTATION MARKS

548. Quotation marks are used to show that the words enclosed by them are the exact words of the writer or speaker.

549. A direct quotation is always enclosed in quotation marks. For example:

- He remarked, "I believe it to be true."

But an indirect quotation is not enclosed in quotation marks. For example:

- He remarked that he believed it was true.

550. When the name of an author is given at the close of a quotation it is not necessary to use the quotation marks. For example:

- All courage comes from braving the unequal.—Eugene F. Ware.

When the name of the author precedes the quotation, the marks are used, as in the following:

- It was Eugene F. Ware who said, "Men are not great except they do and dare."

551. When we are referring to titles of books, magazines or newspapers, or words and phrases used in illustration, we enclose them in quotation marks, unless they are written in italics. For example:

- "Whitman's Leaves of Grass" or Whitman's Leaves of Grass. "The New York Call" or The New York Call. The word "book" is a noun, or, The word book is a noun.

THE QUOTATION WITHIN A QUOTATION

552. When a quotation is contained within another, the included quotation should be enclosed by single quotation marks and the entire quotation enclosed by the usual marks. For example:

- He began by saying, "The last words of Ferrer, 'Long live the modern school' might serve as the text for this lecture."

- The speaker replied, "It was Karl Marx who said, 'Government always belongs to those who control the wealth of the country.'"

You will note in this sentence that the quotation within the quotation occurs at the end of the sentence so there are three apostrophes used after it, the single apostrophe to indicate the included quotation and the double apostrophe which follows the entire quotation.

PUNCTUATION WITH QUOTATION MARKS

553. Marks of punctuation are (except the interrogation point and the exclamation point which are explained later) placed inside the quotation marks. For example:

- A wise man said, "Know thyself."

Notice that the period is placed after the word thyself and is followed by the quotation marks.

- "We can easily rout the enemy," declared the speaker.

Notice that the comma is placed after enemy, and before the quotation marks.

554. The Interrogation Point and the Exclamation Point are placed within the quotation marks if they refer only to the words quoted, but if they belong to the entire sentence they should be placed outside the quotation marks. For example:

- He said, "Will you come now?"

- Did he say, "Will you come now"?

- He said, "What a beautiful night!"

- How wonderfully inspiring is Walt Whitman's poem, "The Song of the Open Road"!

555. Sometimes parenthetical or explanatory words are inserted within a quotation. These words should be set off by commas, and both parts of the quotation enclosed in quotation marks. For example:

- "I am aware," he said, "that you do not agree with me."

- "But why," the speaker was asked, "should you make such a statement?"

- "I do not believe," he replied, "that you have understood me."

THE APOSTROPHE

556. The apostrophe is used to indicate the omission of letters or syllables, as: He doesn't, instead of does not; We're, instead of we are; I'm, instead of I am; it's, instead of it is; ne'er, instead of never; they'll, instead of they will, etc.

557. The apostrophe is also used to denote possession. In the single form of the nouns it precedes the s. In the plural form of nouns ending in s it follows the s. For example:

- Boy's, man's, girl's, king's, friend's, etc.

- Boys', men's, girls', kings', friends', etc.

Note that the apostrophe is not used with the possessive pronouns ours, yours, its, theirs, hers.

558. The apostrophe is used to indicate the plural of letters, figures or signs. For example:

- Dot your i's and cross your t's.

- He seems unable to learn the table of 8's and 9's.

- Do not make your n's and u's so much alike.

559. The apostrophe is used to mark the omission of the century in dates, as: '87 instead of 1887, '15 instead of 1915.

THE HYPHEN

560. The hyphen is used between the parts of a compound word or at the end of a line to indicate that a word is divided. We have so many compound words in our language which we have used so often that we have almost forgotten that they were compound words so it is not always easy to decide whether the hyphen belongs in a word or not. As, for example; we find such words as schoolhouse, bookkeeper, railway and many others which are, in reality, compound words and in the beginning were written with the hyphen. We have used them so frequently and their use as compound words has become so commonplace, that we no longer use the hyphen in writing them. Yet frequently you will find them written with the hyphen by some careful writer.

561. As a general rule the parts of all words which are made by uniting two or more words into one should be joined by hyphens, as:

- Men-of-war, knee-deep, half-hearted, full-grown, mother-in-law, etc.

562. The numerals expressing a compound number should be united by a hyphen, as; forty-two, twenty-seven, thirty-nine, etc.

563. When the word self is used with an adverb, a noun or an adjective, it is always connected by the hyphen, as; self-confidence, self-confident, self-confidently, self-command, self-assertive, self-asserting, etc.

564. When the word fold is added to a number of more than one syllable, the hyphen is always used, as; thirty-fold, forty-fold, fifty-fold, etc. If the numeral has but one syllable, do not use the hyphen, as; twofold, threefold, fourfold, etc.

565. When fractions are written in words instead of figures always use the hyphen, as; one-half, one-fourth, three-sevenths, nine-twelfths, etc.

566. The words half and quarter, when used with any word, should be connected by a hyphen, as; half-dollar, quarter-pound, half-skilled, half-barbaric, half-civilized, half-dead, half-spent, etc.

567. Sometimes we coin a phrase for temporary use in which the words are connected by the hyphen. For example:

- It was a never-to-be-forgotten day.

- He wore a sort of I-told-you-so air.

- They were fresh-from-the-pen copies.

ADDITIONAL MARKS OF PUNCTUATION

There are a few other marks of punctuation which we do not often use in writing but which we find on the printed page. It is well for us to know the meaning of these marks.

568. The caret (^) is used to mark the omission of a letter or word or a number of words. The omitted part is generally written above, and the caret shows where it should be inserted. For example:

- s

- I cannot give you this permis^ion.

- received

- I have just ^a letter from him.

- and all letters

- Please write your matriculation number on all examination papers ^sent in to the College.

The above examples illustrate the use of the caret with the omission of a letter, a word or phrase.

569. If a letter or manuscript is not too long, it should always be rewritten and the omissions properly inserted. Occasionally, however, we are in a hurry and our time is too limited to rewrite an entire letter because of the omission of a single letter or word so we can insert it by the use of the caret. If, however, there are many mistakes, the letter or paper should be rewritten, for the too frequent use of the caret indicates carelessness in writing and does not produce a favorable impression upon the recipient of your letter or manuscript.

MARKS OF ELLIPSIS

570. Sometimes a long dash (————) or succession of asterisks (* * * * * *) or of points (. . . . . .) is used to indicate the omission of a portion of a sentence or a discourse. In printed matter usually the asterisks are used to indicate an omission. In typewritten matter usually a succession of points is used to indicate an omission. In writing, these are difficult to make and the omission of the portion of material is usually indicated by a succession of short dashes (— — — —).

MARKS OF REFERENCE

571. On the printed page you will often find the asterisk (*), or the dagger, (†), the section (§), or parallel lines (||), used to call your attention to some note or remark written at the close of the paragraph or on the margin, at the bottom of the page or the end of the chapter. It is advisable to hunt these up as soon as you come to the mark which indicates their presence, for they usually contain some matter which explains or adds to the meaning of the sentence which you have just finished reading.

Exercise 1

In the following exercise, note the various marks of punctuation and determine why each one is used:

THE MARSEILLAISE

Ye sons of toil, awake to glory!

Hark, hark, what myriads bid you rise;

Your children, wives and grandsires hoary—

Behold their tears and hear their cries!

Shall hateful tyrants, mischief breeding,

With hireling hosts, a ruffian band,—

Affright and desolate the land,

While peace and liberty lie bleeding?

CHORUS

To arms! to arms! ye brave!

Th' avenging sword unsheathe!

March on, march on, all hearts resolved

On Victory or Death.

With luxury and pride surrounded,

The vile, insatiate despots dare,

Their thirst for gold and power unbounded,

To mete and vend the light and air;

Like beasts of burden would they load us,

Like gods would bid their slaves adore,

But Man is Man, and who is more?

Then shall they longer lash and goad us? (CHORUS)

O Liberty! can man resign thee,

Once having felt thy generous flame?

Can dungeons' bolts and bars confine thee,

Or whip thy noble spirit tame?

Too long the world has wept bewailing,

That Falsehood's dagger tyrants wield;

But Freedom is our sword and shield,

And all their arts are unavailing! (CHORUS)

—Rouget de Lisle.

THUS SPAKE ZARATHUSTRA

I teach ye the Over-man. The man is something who shall be overcome. What have ye done to overcome him?

All being before this made something beyond itself: and you will be the ebb of this great flood, and rather go back to the beast than overcome the man?

What is the ape to the man? A mockery or a painful shame. And even so shall man be to the Over-man: a mockery or a painful shame.

Man is a cord, tied between Beast and Over-man—a cord above an abyss.

A perilous arriving, a perilous traveling, a perilous looking backward, a perilous trembling and standing still.

What is great in man is that he is a bridge, and no goal; what can be loved in man is that he is a going-over and a going-under.

I love them that know how to live, be it even as those going under, for such are those going across.

I love them that are great in scorn, because these are they that are great in reverence, and arrows of longing toward the other shore!—Nietzsche.

SPELLING

LESSON 30

There are a great many words in English which are frequently mispronounced; the accent is placed upon the wrong syllable; for example, thea'ter instead of the'ater; the wrong sound is given to the vowel, for example, hearth is pronounced hurth. Sometimes, too, an extra letter is added in the pronunciation; for example, once is often pronounced as though it were spelled wunst.

The following is a list of common words that are frequently mispronounced, and there are many others which you may add to this list as they occur to you. Look up the correct pronunciation in the dictionary and pronounce them many times aloud.

In the second column in this list is given the incorrect pronunciation, which we often hear.

Acoustics

a-cow-stics

Aeroplane

air-e-o-plane

Apron

a-pron

Athlete

ath-a-lete

Autopsy

au-top'-sy

Awkward

awk-ard

Column

col-yum

Coupon

coo-pon

Deficit

de-fic'it

Diphtheria

dip-ther-y

Economic

ee'co-nom-ic

Errand

ur-rant

Faucet

fos-set

Figure

fig-ger

Film

fill-um

Finance

fi'nance

Guardian

guar-deen'

Height

heighth

Hostile

hos-tile'

Hundred

hund'erd

Idea

i-dee'

Inaugurate

in-aug-er-ate

Inquiry

in'qui-ry

Inventory

in-ven'-to-ry

Length

lenth

Magazine

mag'-a'zinn

Mischievous

mis-chie'-vi-ous

Municipal

mu-ni-cip'-al

Opponent

op'-ponent

Overalls

over-hauls

Rheumatism

rheumatiz

Stomach

stum-ick

Twice

twict

Vaudeville

vaw'de-ville

There are a number of words in English which sound very much alike and which we are apt to confuse. For example, I heard a man recently say in a speech that the party to which he belonged had taken slow poison and now needed an anecdote. It is presumed that he meant that it needed an antidote. Some one else remarked that a certain individual had not been expelled but simply expended. He undoubtedly meant that the individual had been suspended.

This confusion in the use of words detracts from the influence which our statements would otherwise have. There are a number of words which are so nearly alike that it is very easy to be confused in the use of them. In our spelling lesson for this week we have a number of the most common of these easily confounded words. Add to the list as many others as you can.

Monday

- Lightening, to make light

- Lightning, an electric flash

- Prophesy, to foretell

- Prophecy, a prediction

- Accept, to take

- Except, to leave out

Tuesday

- Advice, counsel

- Advise, to give counsel

- Attendants, servants

- Attendance, those present

- Stationary, fixed

- Stationery, pens, paper, etc.

Wednesday

- Formerly, in the past

- Formally, in a formal way

- Addition, process of adding

- Edition, publication

- Celery, a vegetable

- Salary, wages

Thursday

- Series, a succession

- Serious, solemn

- Precedent, an example

- President, chief or head

- Partition, a division

- Petition, a request

Friday

- Ingenious, skillful

- Ingenuous, honest

- Jester, one who jests

- Gesture, action

- Lose, to suffer loss

- Loose, to untie

Saturday

- Presence, nearness

- Presents, gifts

- Veracity, truthfulness

- Voracity, greediness

- Disease, illness

- Decease, death

THE END AND THE BEGINNING

As we look back over the study of these thirty lessons we find that we have covered quite a little ground. We have covered the entire field of English grammar including punctuation. But our study of English must not conclude with the study of this course. This is simply the foundation which we have laid for future work. You know when students graduate from high school or college the graduation is called the Commencement. That is a peculiarly fitting term, for the gaining of knowledge ought truly to be the commencement of life for us.

Some one has said that the pursuit of knowledge might be compared to a man's marriage to a charming, wealthy woman. He pursued and married her because of her wealth but after marriage found her so charming that he grew to love her for herself. So we ofttimes pursue wisdom for practical reasons because we expect it to serve us in the matter of making a living; because we expect it to make us more efficient workers; to increase our efficiency to such an extent that we may command a higher salary, enter a better profession and be more certain of a job.

All this is well; but we often find that after we have pursued wisdom for these reasons, practical as they are, we have fallen in love with her for her own sake. We begin to take pleasure in her society; we begin to want to know things for the sake of knowing them, for the pleasure that it brings us, quite divorced from any idea of monetary gain.

So while we have urged upon you the study of English because of the great practical benefit that it will be to you, we trust that you have also grown to love the study for its own sake.

Make this but the beginning of your work in the study of English.

INDEX

Section No.

- Abbreviations, 486-489

- Absolute Construction, 399

- Adjectives

- Defined, 36

- Classification of, 242-245

- Qualifying, 246

- Limiting, 246

- Descriptive, 248

- Numeral, 249-250

- Demonstrative, 251

- How to discover, 247

- Interrogative, 255

- Indefinite, 256-257

- Used as pronouns, 258-259

- Used as nouns, 261

- Comparison of, 264-271

- Participles used as, 272-274

- Participle phrases used as, 275

- Adverbs

- Defined, 41, 282

- Use of, 279-281

- How to tell, 283

- Classes of, 284

- Interrogative, 285

- Of mode, 286, 397

- Phrase Adverbs, 287

- To Distinguish from Adj, 288-289

- Derivation of, 290

- Nouns used as, 291

- Comparison of, 292-294

- Position of, 295

- With Infinitive, 296

- Common errors in use of, 297-298

- Articles

- A and An, use of, 252-253

- The, use of, 254

- Capital Letters

- Need of, 464

- Uses of, 22, 60, 465

- Rules for, 466-484

- Clauses

- Defined, 406

- Noun, 361-366, 371, 445

- Adjective, 367-372, 446

- With Conjunctions, 376

- Introduced by as, 378

- Adverb, 447

- Dependent, kinds of, 444-447

- Conjunctions

- Defined, 52, 331

- Uses of, 328

- Classes of, 329-330

- Co-ordinate, 332-334

- Uses of, 336-345

- Correlatives, 346

- Subordinate, defined, 349

- Use of, 347

- Classes of, 350-359

- Phrase Conjunctions, 360

- Connective Words

- Classes of, 379

- Uses of, 380-385

- Contractions, 485

- Dictionary, Use of, 4

- Exclamatory Words, 390-391

- Explanatory Words, 398

- Good English, defined, 2

- Grammar, English, defined, 10

- Independent Expressions, 393

- Infinitives

- Use of, 151-167

- To, omitted, 153-155

- Forms of, 156

- Passive, 156-157

- Interjections

- Defined, 57, 388

- Classes of, 389

- Introductory Words, 394-396

- Language

- Defined, 8

- Natural, 5

- Spoken, 6

- Written, 7

- Nouns

- Defined, 26

- Classification of, 59

- Proper, defined, 60

- Common, defined, 60

- Collective, defined, 61

- Abstract, 62-66

- Concrete, 63

- Number, defined, 68

- Number, Singular, 68

- Number, Plural, 68

- Formation of Plural, 69-84

- Formation of Possessive, 89-90, 92

- Compound, 91

- Gender, defined, 85

- Formation of Feminine, 86

- Neuter, 87

- Common, 88

- Object

- Direct, 100, 408-410, 427-430

- Indirect, 408-410

- Participle

- Defined, 116

- Active form, 114

- Present form, 114, 148

- Passive form, 115, 148

- Past form, 115

- Past irregular forms, 124

- Used as nouns, 148

- Used as adjective, 272-274

- Phrase, 149-150

- Phrase used as adjective, 275

- Parts of Speech, 24

- Phrases

- Verb, 29, 413

- Adverbs, 287

- Prepositional, 300-305, 317-321

- Prepositions, 308

- Conjunctions, 360

- Predicate

- Defined, 17

- Complete, 406, 425

- Simple, 406

- Simple Enlarged, 463

- Complement, 411-412

- Modifiers of, 461

- Prepositions

- Defined, 47, 305

- Use of, 309-312

- Object of, 304, 313

- List of, 306

- How to Distinguish from Adverbs, 307

- Phrase prepositions, 308

- Place of, 314-316

- Common errors in use of, 322

- With verbs, 327

- Choice of, 323-326

- Prepositional Phrases, 300-305

- Use of, 317-321

- Pronouns

- Defined, 43, 202

- Antecedent of, 203

- Personal, 204

- Compound personal, 205-208

- Number forms of, 209

- Object forms of, 214-215

- Possessive forms of, 211-213

- Gender forms of, 216

- With verb "be", 217-218

- Agreement of, 219-225

- Personification, 226

- Interrogative, 228-231

- Relative, 232-236

- What, 234, 236-240

- Who, 234, 235, 240

- Which, 234-236, 240

- That, 234-236

- Omitted, 239

- Punctuation

- Need of, 490-493

- Marks of, 494

- The Comma, 495-496

- Rules for use of, 497-506

- The Semi-colon, 407-511

- The Colon, 512-515

- The Period, 22, 516-521

- The Interrogation Point, 22, 523-524

- The Exclamation Point, 22, 525-526

- The Dash, 527-536

- The Parenthesis, 537-543

- The Bracket, 544-547

- The Quotation Marks, 548-555

- The Apostrophe, 556-559

- The Hyphen, 560-567

- The Caret, 568

- Marks of Ellipsis, 570

- Marks of Reference, 571

- Responsives, 392

- Sentence

- Defined, 15

- Essentials of, 18

- Use of, 19

- Assertive, 20

- Interrogative, 20

- Imperative, 20

- Exclamatory, 21

- Elements, order of, 436-438

- Analysis of, 456-457

- Simple, defined, 404-406

- Modifiers of, 434-435

- Essentials of, 459

- Analysis of, 402-405

- Complex, 406, 443, 451

- Analysis of, 448

- Compound, defined, 406, 452

- Kinds of, 453-455

- Building of, 400

- Classification of, 401

- Summary of, 458

- Subject of, 416-420

- Subject

- Defined, 16

- Complete, 406

- Simple, 406

- Simple, enlarged, 462

- Place of, 421-424

- Thought, Complete, 12-14

- Verb

- Defined, 29

- Complete, 95, 103, 131, 158

- Incomplete, 95, 103, 131, 426

- Classified, 99, 103

- Complement of, 95, 102

- Transitive, defined, 100, 103

- Object of, 100, 141

- Copulative, 102-103, 431-433

- Time forms

- Present, 104, 108, 111

- Past, 104, 109, 111

- Future, 118-120

- Pres. Perf., 121-123, 145

- Past Perf., 126

- Future Perf., 128

- Regular, 110

- Irregular, 110

- Progressive Form, 133

- Present, 134, 146

- Past, 135, 146

- Future, 136, 146

- Pres. Perf., 138, 146

- Past Perf., 139, 146

- Fut. Perf., 140, 146

- Active, 142

- Passive, 141-146

- Helping, 168-184

- Be, 186

- Lay, lie, set, sit, raise, rise, 191-193

- S-form, 106, 194-196

- Phrase, 29, 413-414

- Words

- Defined, 8

- Mastery of, 10

- Use of, 23

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:

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2. The list broken across pp. 44-45 (section 80.) and the list of abbreviations broken across pp. 295-296 (section 489.) were rearranged to preserve alphabetical order when pages were joined.

3. The numbering of Exercise 4 on p. 110 has been corrected.

4. Commas were added to separate the abbreviations on p. 305.

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Table of Contents

PLAIN ENGLISH

FOREWORD

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PLAIN ENGLISH

SPELLING

PLAIN ENGLISH Lesson I

Open Letter

GOOD ENGLISH—WHAT IS IT?

USE YOUR DICTIONARY

OUR LANGUAGE

WHEN WE BEGIN TO THINK

Exercise 1

OUR EXPRESSION

THE THOUGHT AND THE WORD

A COMPLETE THOUGHT

Exercise 2

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

Exercise 3

Exercise 4

SPELLING LESSON 1

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 2

KINDS OF SENTENCES

Exercise 1

WORDS—THEIR USES

THE NAMES OF THINGS

Exercise 2

WORDS THAT ASSERT

Exercise 3

Exercise 4

Exercise 5

SPELLING LESSON 2

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 3

WORDS ADDED TO NOUNS

Exercise 1

WORDS ADDED TO VERBS

Exercise 2

WORDS USED IN PLACE OF NOUNS

Exercise 3

PREPOSITIONS

Exercise 4

CONJUNCTIONS

Exercise 5

INTERJECTIONS

Exercise 6

SPELLING LESSON 3

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 4

CLASSES OF NOUNS

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

Exercise 1

ABSTRACT NOUNS

Exercise 2

NUMBER FORM

GENDER

POSSESSIVE FORM

Exercise 3

Exercise 4

Exercise 5

SPELLING LESSON 4

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 5

THE WORD THAT ASSERTS

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

INCOMPLETE VERBS

Exercise 3

Exercise 4

Exercise 5

Exercise 6

Exercise 7

SPELLING LESSON 5

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 6

INFLECTION—CHANGES IN FORM

PAST TIME

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

DOING DOUBLE WORK

LET US SUM UP

Exercise 3

Exercise 4

List of Irregular Verbs

SPELLING LESSON 6

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 7

FUTURE TIME

Exercise 1

PERFECT TIME

PAST PERFECT

Exercise 2

FUTURE PERFECT TIME

LET US SUM UP

VERBS—SUMMARY

Two Classes

Inflection—Changes of Form

TIME FORMS

Present

Past

Future

Present Perfect

Past Perfect

Future Perfect

Exercise 3

Exercise 4

TENSE

Exercise 5

SPELLING LESSON 7

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 8

PROGRESSIVE VERB PHRASES

Exercise 1

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE

Exercise 2

SUMMARY

Exercise 3

Exercise 4

SPELLING LESSON 8

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 9

PARTICIPLES

PARTICIPLE PHRASES

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

INFINITIVES

Exercise 3

Exercise 4

DON'TS FOR INFINITIVES

Exercise 5

Exercise 6

SPELLING LESSON 9

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 10

HELPING VERBS

Exercise 1

SHOULD AND WOULD

Exercise 2

MAY AND MIGHT

Exercise 3

CAN AND COULD

Exercise 4

MUST AND OUGHT

Exercise 5

DO AND DID

Exercise 6

Exercise 7

Exercise 8

SPELLING LESSON 10

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 11

THE VERB "BE"

A FREQUENT MISTAKE

Exercise 1

WITH HELPING VERBS

Exercise 2

PAST TIME FORMS

Exercise 3

VERBS OF SIMILAR FORM

Exercise 4

COMMON ERRORS

Exercise 5

Exercise 6

Faith and Truth

Exercise 7

Exercise 8

SPELLING LESSON 11

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 12

IN PLACE OF A NOUN

KINDS OF PRONOUNS

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS

Reflexive

Emphatic

Exercise 1

SINGULAR AND PLURAL

Exercise 2

POSSESSIVE FORM

POSSESSIVE FORM

OBJECT FORM

GENDER

THE LITTLE VERB BE

Agreement

PERSONIFICATION

REMEMBER

SUMMARY

Exercise 3

"I THOUGHT I STOOD"

SPELLING LESSON 12

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 13

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

COMMON ERRORS

SUMMARY

Pronoun—In Place of a Noun

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

Exercise 3

Exercise 4

Exercise 5

Exercise 6

Exercise 7

Exercise 8

Exercise 9

Exercise 10

Exercise 11

SPELLING LESSON 13

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 14

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES

HOW TO DISCOVER AN ADJECTIVE

Exercise 1

QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES

LIMITING ADJECTIVES

Numeral Adjectives

Demonstratives

Exercise 2

ARTICLES

Exercise 3

INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES

INDEFINITES

Exercise 4

Exercise 5

SPELLING LESSON 14

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 15

ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS

ADJECTIVES AS NOUNS

ADJECTIVES WITH PRONOUNS

COMPARISON

DESCENDING COMPARISON

PARTICIPLES AS ADJECTIVES

Exercise 1

PARTICIPLE PHRASES

USES OF ADJECTIVES

COMMON ERRORS

Exercise 2

Exercise 3

SPELLING LESSON 15

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 16

WORDS ADDED TO VERBS

HOW TO TELL ADVERBS

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

CLASSES OF ADVERBS

Exercise 3

INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS

Exercise 4

ADVERBS OF MODE

PHRASE ADVERBS

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Exercise 5

NOUNS AS ADVERBS

Exercise 6

SPELLING LESSON 16

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 17

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

Exercise 1

POSITION OF ADVERBS

Exercise 2

ADVERBS AND INFINITIVES

COMMON ERRORS

Exercise 3

DO NOT USE TOO MANY ADVERBS

Exercise 4

SPELLING LESSON 17

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 18

A GROUP OF WORDS

Exercise 1

USED AS ADVERBS

Exercise 2

Exercise 3

PREPOSITIONS

ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS

Exercise 4

PHRASE PREPOSITIONS

Exercise 5

SPELLING LESSON 18

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 19

AN IMPORTANT WORD

Exercise 1

A GOVERNING WORD

Where to Put the Preposition

POSSESSIVE PHRASES

COMMON ERRORS

The Correct Preposition

THE PREPOSITION WITH VERBS

Exercise 2

Exercise 3

SPELLING LESSON 19

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 20

CONJUNCTIONS

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS

CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

NOUNS

Exercise 3

PRONOUNS

Exercise 4

VERBS

Exercise 5

ADJECTIVES

Exercise 6

ADVERBS

Exercise 7

PHRASES

Verb Phrases

Exercise 8

Prepositional Phrases

Exercise 9

Infinitives and Participles

Exercise 10

CLAUSES

CORRELATIVES

Exercise 11

SPELLING LESSON 20

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 21

SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

CLASSES OF SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

SUMMARY

Exercise 1

PHRASE CONJUNCTIONS

Exercise 2

NOUN CLAUSES

Exercise 3

Exercise 4

SPELLING LESSON 21

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 22

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Exercise 1

THE INTRODUCING WORD

Exercise 2

WHICH RELATIVE PRONOUN TO USE

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES WITH CONJUNCTIONS

THE LITTLE WORD "AS"

CONNECTIVE WORDS

Exercise 3

Exercise 4

Exercise 5

SPELLING LESSON 22

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 23

INTERJECTIONS

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

EXCLAMATORY WORDS

Exercise 3

YES AND NO

OTHER INDEPENDENT EXPRESSIONS

INTRODUCTORY WORDS

Exercise 4

EXPLANATORY WORDS

Exercise 5

Exercise 6

ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION

Exercise 7

Exercise 8

SPELLING LESSON 23

MONDAY

TUESDAY

WEDNESDAY

THURSDAY

FRIDAY

SATURDAY

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 24

SENTENCE BUILDING

THREE KINDS OF SENTENCES

In Exclamatory Form

ANALYSIS—SIMPLE SENTENCES

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

ANOTHER ELEMENT

Exercise 3

Exercise 4

COPULATIVE VERBS

Exercise 5

VERB PHRASES

LET US SUM UP

Exercise 6

SPELLING LESSON 24

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 25

THE SUBJECT OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE

PLACE OF THE SUBJECT IN A SENTENCE

Exercise 1

THE COMPLETE PREDICATE

INCOMPLETE VERBS

THE OBJECT OF THE VERB

VERBS OF STATE OR CONDITION

Exercise 2

MODIFIERS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

ORDER OF ELEMENTS

Exercise 3

SPELLING LESSON 25

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 26

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

Exercise 1

COMPLEX SENTENCES

KINDS OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES

NOUN CLAUSES

Exercise 2

Exercise 3

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Exercise 4

Exercise 5

ADVERB CLAUSES

ANALYZING COMPLEX SENTENCES

Exercise 6

Exercise 7

Exercise 8

Exercise 9

SPELLING LESSON 26

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 27

KINDS OF SENTENCES

Exercise 1

KINDS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES

Exercise 2

SENTENCE ANALYSIS

Exercise 3

Exercise 4

SUMMARY

ESSENTIALS OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE

THE SUBJECT

Modifiers of the Subject

THE PREDICATE

SIMPLE SUBJECT ENLARGED

SIMPLE PREDICATE ENLARGED

Exercise 5

Exercise 6

SPELLING LESSON 27

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 28

CAPITAL LETTERS

RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

Exercise 3

ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS

COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS

Exercise 4

SPELLING LESSON 28

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 29

PUNCTUATION

THE COMMA

WORDS WHICH FORM A SERIES

PHRASES WHICH FORM SERIES

CLAUSES USED IN A SERIES

Exercise 1

THE SEMI-COLON

RULES FOR THE USE OF THE SEMI-COLON

RULES FOR THE USE OF THE COLON

RULES FOR THE USE OF THE PERIOD

Exercise 2

Exercise 3

SPELLING LESSON 29

PATIENTS or PATIENCE

NEGLIGENCE or NEGLECT

OBSERVANCE or OBSERVATION

RELATIVES or RELATIONS

SECTS or SEX

STATUE or STATUTE

PLAIN ENGLISH LESSON 30

THE ETERNAL WHY

THE INTERROGATION POINT

THE EXCLAMATION POINT

THE DASH

PARENTHESIS

THE PUNCTUATION OF THE PARENTHESIS

OTHER USES OF THE PARENTHESIS

THE BRACKET

QUOTATION MARKS

THE QUOTATION WITHIN A QUOTATION

PUNCTUATION WITH QUOTATION MARKS

THE APOSTROPHE

THE HYPHEN

ADDITIONAL MARKS OF PUNCTUATION

MARKS OF ELLIPSIS

MARKS OF REFERENCE

Exercise 1

SPELLING LESSON 30

THE END AND THE BEGINNING

INDEX

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:

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